中国民俗服饰-回族服饰,最洁净之色的服饰

回族是中国信仰伊斯兰教的民族之一。其服饰由于地域、性别、教派之差异，构成了不同风貌和特色。

青海、甘肃、宁夏回族地区的服饰较富于传统特点。新疆回族妇女穿长旗袍、坎肩，戴盖头；男服饰与西北其他地区回族相同。华北回族的服饰基本与汉族相同。少数阿訇等宗教职业者尚保留长袍或号帽外缠头饰等传统习俗。

回族特别是其宗教人员的一些服饰，其渊源与阿拉伯国家和伊斯兰教的影响有关。如回族妇女的戴盖头习俗，是受阿拉伯妇女习俗的影响。又如平顶帽和一些头饰，均来源于波斯和阿富汗。教长戴的红、绿色高詹硬壳带穗的帽子，则来自土耳其。陇东南回民（主要是哲赫林耶派）所穿的宽大长衫和戴的六角帽，与阿曼、也门一带的衣帽很相似。

回族的服饰与其他民族主要不同之处，在于头部。回族聚居地区的男子多戴圆形无沿小白帽，回族学者金吉堂在《回教民族说》一文中说回族“常用缠头、软制白帽，故素有白帽回之称。”史载元、明时代回族因循伊斯兰教法，都缠白布“得斯它尔”。到清代中期，回族人民为了反抗压迫和残害，提倡穆斯林精诚团结，以无沿白帽作为队伍标志。抗日战争初期，以马本斋为首的回民支队在中国共产党的领导下。头戴白帽奔赴抗日前线，杀敌立功，为抗击日寇写下了光辉的一页。

有的学者说，戴伊斯兰教徒无沿白帽是为了礼拜叩头方便，达到额头、鼻尖着地，全身心贯注在一点上。如《回回原来》一书载；“叩头交还一点心，生时面地是根本。”回民叩头时认识到，人生活在士地上，也要死亡在土地上，这是谁也不能违抗的规律，人类之所以能生活，应报答真主的恩赐。所以，无沿白帽以称为“礼拜帽”或“白孝帽”。后来，回族男子应生活需要，认为白帽轻薄凉爽，物美价廉，方便易做，便成了男性穆斯林普遍的头饰了。回族因地区、季节不同而帽饰有别。如北方回民冬天由于天冷头凉，多戴蓝、黑平绒或呢子圆帽。云南的回族喜戴尖顶红帽；海南岛的回族则在白帽上绣出“清真言”的阿拉伯文字；宁夏山区哲合林耶教派回民多戴六角帽。

回族聚居地区的男子除了戴白帽外，一些偏僻山区还有穿坎肩的习惯，夏天往往在白衬衫上再套穿黑色坎肩。黑白分明，清秀素雅，别具特色。据史书记载，回族先民骁勇强悍，善骑射，好拳术，有尚武精神。为使衣冠整洁、利索而多穿坎肩，打扮成武士模样。宁夏的吴忠、泾源、同心，青海的民和、大通，甘肃的临夏、张家川等地的回族妇女，有戴盖头的 习俗。戴盖头是从《古兰经》上的规定“令她们把头巾垂在衣领上”而来，意思是把头发、耳朵、脖子等都遮盖起来，集中精力礼拜，眼不观邪，耳不听邪，口不说邪后来发展成为一些回族地区妇女的普遍服饰。盖头一般有三种；青年妇女戴绿色盖头，清新秀丽；中年妇女戴黑色盖头，清雅庄重；老年人戴白色盖头，清净洁白。过去一些青壮年妇女多戴圆顶撮口白帽，旁绣花朵，显得灵巧素雅，俊俏秀美。同时老年妇女冬天多戴黑、褐色头巾，夏天搭白纱巾；中年妇女冬天戴红、绿、蓝色头巾，夏天戴轻薄红绿纱巾。回族妇女披戴各色盖头、纱巾，婀娜多姿，十分俏丽。

中国民俗服饰-追求宁静风格的藏族服饰

藏装的基本特点是长袖、宽腰、大襟、肥大。藏族服饰追求宁静的风格，同时又强调华美、富丽。但是，出于藏族劳动生息在雪域高原之上，各地自然条件差异很大，加上宗教信仰的影响，所以藏族服饰并非清一色的宽袍大袖，而是丰富多采的。

据说，任何民族的形成都要经历两个重要时代，即猎人时代和农人时代。猎人时代的先民们在狩猎时为了诱使猎物上当，常将兽皮披在身上，扮成各种动物。这样做的结果，一是获取更多的猎物，二是发现兽皮可避寒取暖。这种发现，使他们开始走上了用各种兽皮制作服装和头饰的道路。在今天藏族服饰和头饰艺术中还保留着他们祖先猎人时代的装饰遗风。如草地藏民用美丽的豹皮、獭皮装饰衣裙边，用狐皮做帽子，用獐皮做钱包等。


另外，藏族服饰和头饰的形成还受自然条件、生活环境的制约。藏北地处高寒地带，夏短冬长，昼夜温差大，又是天然牧场，为便于牧区的生活、起居、放牧，这里的牧民一年四季身着老羊皮袍，头戴狐皮帽，脚穿牛皮统靴。皮袍做得结实肥大，具有防寒功能强、散热方便的特点，夜间可当被；白天气温高，劳动时只穿左袖，右袖从后而拉到胸前，搭在右肩上；或左右袖均不穿，两袖束在腰间，既方便干活，又能调节体温。还可显出牧民豪放的性格和豁达的风度。

藏南谷地，气候温和湿润，这个地区的藏民穿着比较单薄，如拉萨和山南地区，男装以夹袍居多，妇女常着瘦袍和长袖衫，腰扎“帮典”(花条围裙)，显得素雅潇洒。

工布地区，地处横断山脉西部，原始森林丰富，雨量充沛。这里盛行一种叫“古秀”的宽肩无袖袍，双臂活动方便，适合在林中伐木，拾运木材，实用性强。

另外一些地区，气候渐转温和，藏民多穿用毡、布料做的衣服。多趋于精巧。

藏族服饰和头饰艺术的宗教色彩也很浓。在佛教文化中，白色象征圣洁。在日常生活中，藏族人尚白，认为白色足纯洁、吉利的象征，所以用白色衣料做衬衫，用白色衣料装饰衣裙边。藏族服饰和头饰中，也普遍使用红、黄、橙、蓝、青、绿等色，这也和他们的宗教审美心理有关。因为佛祖释迦牟尼身着黄色袈裟，莲花生大师头戴红帽，宗喀巴大师头戴黄帽。藏族男女胸前佩戴的佛珠和银质的“嘎乌”也和宗教有关，手捻佛殊，口中念念有词，“嘎乌”内装护身符与子母约(活佛给的药)，以求平安富贵。

藏装上要有藏袍、藏衣和衬衫等。藏装左襟大、右襟小，右腋下钉有一个纽扣，或钉有色布做的两条飘带，代替扣子，穿时系上就行了。农区的藏袍以氆氇为主要原料，男式女式都是大襟服装，男式以黑，白氆氇为料、领子、袖口、襟和底边镶有色布或绸子；女式多以氆氇、毛料、呢子作料，夏秋穿的不带袖，冬天穿的有袖，腰间束有腰带。无论男女穿袍子，里面都要着衬衫，在颜色上，男式用白色绸料的多，女式用印花绸布的多。一般来说，男式衬衫高领，女式衬衫翻领。无论男式、女式，袖子都比较长。藏袍一般比人的身高还长，穿时把腰部提起，腰间系上一根腰带，用来调节长度，通常男子将袍子束高，下摆垂至膝盖附近，女子则将下摆放到脚背上面。

牧区的服装以皮袍为主，-般是不加面的板皮。男式的在襟、袖口和底边镶上黑色平绒、灯心绒或毛呢。女式的在板皮外边镶上五彩“帮典”料，并镶上红、蓝、绿等颜色花纹。牧区的皮袍确实宽敞肥大，冬天在他们胸前皮袍内蹲一个五六岁的小孩子，还绰绰有余。皮袍上虽然没有袋子，但穿时提起下部，腰带一束，怀里和腰间便成了一个人行囊，平时旅行，应用物品，就存放在胸前袍内。

藏族群众戴的帽子式样很多，在拉萨、日喀则等地，金宝顶帽最为流行。这种帽用当地产的氆氇和皮毛作料．用金丝缎、金丝带和银丝缎做装饰，在阳光下熠熠生辉、深受藏民喜爱。 一种藏语叫“帮典”的围裙，是藏族妇女喜爱的衣物之-，也是藏族妇女的标志。这种围裙一般是手工生产，先纺纱，后染色、刷毛，织成条状，再缝合成围裙。山南贡嘎县姐德秀区的帮典厂织的围裙比较有名，相传已有五六百年历史，被称为围裙之乡。围裙的品种很多，最好的叫“斜玛”、普通的叫“布鲁”。

令人感兴趣的是藏族的鞋，无论男鞋女鞋，外观均象舞台上古装戏里将相穿的靴一样，底高二寸，腰高至小腿之上，鞋面用红绿相间的毛呢装饰，鞋腰上也有线条、花纹。藏鞋通常分为两类：松巴鞋和嘎洛鞋。松巴鞋鞋底是牛皮做的，厚达寸余，鞋帮色彩斑斓，鞋面银花朵朵。其中有一种叫松巴梯呢玛的，较为高级，喜庆节日才穿用；另有一种鞋叫松巴各多的、适合牧区群众冬天穿着。

嘎洛鞋以牛皮作底，鞋帮是三层氆氇粘缝纫而成，鞋后跟和鞋尖缝上黑色牛皮。这种鞋鞋尖朝上耸起，像木船的前端一样。林芝、山南河谷地带的妇女，喜欢穿嘎洛鞋。

藏族服饰追求宁静的风格，同时又强调华美、富丽。人们喜欢珠光宝气的装饰，广泛运用珠宝、金银、象牙、玉器来打扮自己。并把服饰看作是财富和美的象征，一些藏民哪怕家中再穷，也要花钱去购置精美的装饰品来装饰自己。藏族佩带饰物的部位从头到脚都有：头顶有“巴珠”，发辫上有银币，耳朵上有大环，脖子上有项链，手腕、手指上有镯子、戒指，背上、腰带上也缀挂有金属币、火镰、腰刀、鼻烟壶、腰扣、银元等装饰品，脚上蹬有像舞台用品那样的鞋，甚至僧俗人等手持的念珠，也掺杂进一些装饰品，如翡翠、玛瑙、松耳石等。藏族男女普遍喜爱装饰，除自然条件、宗教信仰等因素外，也有显示藏民族的个性和自尊心的因素。

中国民俗服饰-“俗尚检朴”的土家服饰

《鹤峰州志》载：土家族服饰“俗尚检朴”，“无一切奢靡之风”。 《建始县志》载：“建始俗简陋……男女作苦与共，俗不尚衣冠。”
《宣恩县志》载：土民“不尚服饰”。

可见，鄂西土家族服饰具有“尚检朴”的总体特征。

土家服饰“尚检朴”
《来风县志·风俗志》载：土家族“男女垂髻，短衣跣足，以布勒额，喜斑烂服色。”大致描绘出土家族服饰的基本特色。
解放前，土家人多用自织、自染的土布（家机布）做衣料。男子多穿黑色或蓝色，女子将布染成“鹿子闹莲”、“喜鹊闹梅”、“双凤朝阳”等富有喜色的图案。

男式服饰的基本特色是：上衣为“琵琶襟”，后来逐渐穿对襟短衫和无领满襟短衣；缠腰布带；裤子肥大，裤脚大而短，皆为青、蓝布色，多打绑腿；头包青丝帕或五六尺长的白布，呈“人”字形；脚穿偏耳草鞋、满耳草鞋、布鞋或钉鞋。

女式服饰的基本特色是：上衣矮领右衽，领上镶嵌三条花边（俗称“三股筋”），襟边及袖口贴三条小花边栏杆；下穿“八幅罗裙”，裙褶多而直，后改为裤脚上镶三条彩色花边的大筒裤；姑娘素装是外套黑布单褂，春秋季节多穿白衣，外套黑褂，色似鸦鹊，称之为“鸦鹊衣”；头包一丈多长的青丝帕，缠成人字形，饰以银梳、瓜子针、茉莉针、芭蕉扇等银质饰品；喜欢戴耳环、耳坠、手镯、戒指等金、银、玉制的首饰。

孩童衣裤，不多讲究，只是点缀些花卉图案。帽子很讲究，春季多戴紫金冠；夏季多戴圈圈帽、蛤蟆帽、凉帽；秋季多戴冬瓜帽、风帽、八角帽、凤尾帽等棉帽。帽子以多种彩丝绣花，钉以银质“文八仙”、“武八仙”、“十八罗汉”的装饰品。颈项戴痰枷，以接涎水，还戴有项圈，圈上系银质响铃和“百家锁”等饰品。胸前围有花兜儿，手脚杆上戴银圈，圈上系有银槌、银铃。脚穿“粑粑鞋”、“猫头鞋”，均绣五色花卉。

名扬天下的“西兰卡普” 世居于湘鄂川黔边沿地区的土家族，是一个精于纺织刺绣的民族。早在秦汉时代，土家族的先民就已能用大麻织成一种精细的"布"。《华扬国志》称这种布为“兰干细布”，说它“织成文如绫锦”。唐代又称其为“溪峒布”。 “溪峒布”工艺已十分精湛，《溪蛮丛笑》描绘它“绩五色线为方，文彩斑斓可观。俗用为被或衣裙，或作巾，故又称峒布。”宋代以后，土家族的纺织技术日益发达，除了一般的土布外，用丝经棉纬织造的、色彩绚丽、工艺精巧的织锦-“西兰卡普”（汉译“土花铺盖”），已逐渐享誉天下。

相传“西兰卡普”为一个名叫“西兰”的土家姑娘所首创。一般多用蓝色或黑色纱线为底纱，再用五颜六色的彩色丝线织成各种精美的图案，图案多达二、三百种，用于服饰和被面。“西兰卡普”十分注重色彩的对比与反衬，强调一种艳而不俗、清新不明快和安定、调和的艺术效果，体现了土家族豪放、粗犷、大方的民族性格。编织“西兰卡普”是土家族姑娘必具的本领，而“西兰卡普”又是土家族姑娘必备的嫁妆。

土家族的服饰，平时简洁朴素，便于生产劳动。每逢喜庆节日，则讲究整洁、漂亮，尤其是姑娘们要穿最好看的衣服，佩戴上最珍贵的金银首饰。姑娘的嫁衣“露水衣”，更是富丽堂皇，金针银簪缀满全头，充分反映了土家族人民的勤劳智慧和浓郁的民族文化特点。

中国民俗服饰-绚丽多姿,色彩鲜明的维吾尔族服饰

维吾尔族是我国古老的、历史悠久的民族之一。主要居住在天山以南的绿洲城镇，散居伊犁、北疆、东疆和乌鲁木齐市。维吾尔人民勤劳勇敢，热情奔放，性格豪迈，并且能歌善舞，在漫长的历史发展过程中，还创造了丰富多彩的文化艺术。绚丽多姿的服饰便是维吾尔服饰文化的组成部分。维吾尔服饰形式清晰、纹路多样、色彩鲜明。

维吾尔人其服饰特点是：式样宽松、洒脱，色彩对比强烈。

维吾尔族民族男装，是以“袷袢”式服饰为主要款式，“袷袢”常用彩色条状绸作面料，这是一种深受欢迎的传统式衣料，名为“切克曼”，其次是“拜合散”，它织造细密，衣质轻软，是缝制“袢”的好面料。冬季穿着皮制“袷袢”，十分保暖。

维吾尔妇女爱穿裙装，喜爱选择鲜艳的丝绸或毛料缝制，常见的有大红、大绿、金黄等色的裙装，内穿淡色衬裙。她们偏爱本民族独创的“爱得来斯绸”缝制连衣裙。

“爱得来斯绸”即扎染绸，织造工艺独特，色彩变化多端，纹样若断若连，错落有致，可根据图案需要染成各种颜色，争奇斗艳，绚丽多彩，整体纹饰既抽象又浪漫。“爱得来斯绸”堪称维吾尔衣裙质料精品，每逢假日或喜庆佳节，从街市、乡村、山野，随处都可见到身着不同花色、纹样的爱得来斯绸缝制的花裙。丝绸的花纹如彩云飘飞，色泽明丽，浓艳华丽。

维吾尔男女老少有戴帽冠的习俗。都喜爱戴“朵帕”(四棱小花帽)。帽冠上的图案纹样装饰绚丽多彩。维吾尔花帽不仅选料精良，且工艺精湛。花帽的图案与纹样千变万化，各不相同，这与地域环境有关，南疆喀什地区花帽样式繁多，尤以男花帽显著，它是以黑底白花纹为主，采用色彩对比强烈、格调典雅的“巴旦木”图案，按纹饰的线构成，棱角突起而显出立体感。和田、库车地区的花帽则以优质的丝绒作面料，又配以色彩各异的丝绒线缝织，吐鲁番地区的花帽则以色彩艳丽著称。伊犁地区的花帽则突出线纹的流动感，花帽造型扁浅圆饰，纹样简洁概括。维吾尔妇女戴小花帽，平时常披各色彩色头巾。冬季包厚实的大头巾。

维吾尔人的鞋多为牛皮面制作。在农牧区生活的劳动者大都自己制鞋，也有制作鞋、靴的民间工匠。穿皮制鞋靴是维吾尔人传统的习惯。

随着当今社会经济的发展，维吾尔人的衣装也悄然发生了变化。尤其是居住在城市的维吾尔年青人。他们选择了西服、茄克衫、T恤衫等现代衣着，特别注重服装与鞋帽的搭配。现代维吾尔妇女对于衣料的选择非常注重，夏季，选质地轻柔发亮的乔其纱、闪光绸、真丝或进口花瑶，冬季则是毛料呢绒制成的西服大衣，款式新颖华贵，内衬薄花呢裙服或羊毛织成的连衣裙，穿丝袜、高跟皮鞋，衬出她们丰满健美的体型。

中国民俗服饰-端庄得体，朴素大方的壮族服饰

壮族的男女皆穿黎桶，服装款式以蓝黑色衣裙、衣裤式短装为主。《天下郡国利病书》载：“壮人花衣短裙，男子着短衫，名曰黎桶，腰前后两幅掩不及膝，妇女也着黎桶，下围花幔。”
壮族男装多为破胸对襟的唐装，以当地土布制作，不穿长裤，上衣短领对襟，缝一排(六至八对)布结纽扣，胸前缝小兜一对，腹部有两个大兜，下摆往里折成宽边，并于下沿左右两侧开对称裂口。穿宽大裤，短及膝下。有的缠绑腿，扎头巾。冬天穿鞋戴帽（或包黑头巾），夏天免冠跣足。节日或走亲戚穿云头布底鞋或双钩头鸭嘴鞋。劳动时穿草鞋。

壮族妇女的服饰端庄得体，朴素大方。她们一般的服饰是一身蓝黑，裤脚稍宽，头上包着彩色印花或提花毛巾，腰间系着精致的围裙。上衣着藏青或深蓝色短领右衽偏襟上衣(有的在颈口、袖口、襟底均绣有彩色花边)，分为对襟和偏襟两种，有无领和有领之别。有一暗兜藏于腹前襟内，随襟边缝置数对布结纽扣。在边远山区，壮族妇女还穿着破胸对襟衣，无领，绣五色花纹，镶上阑干。下穿宽肥黑裤(也有的于裤脚沿口镶二道异色彩条)，腰扎围裙，裤脚膝盖处镶上蓝、红、绿色的丝织和棉织阑干。劳动时穿草鞋，并戴垫肩。在赶圩、歌场或节日穿绣花鞋。壮族妇女普遍喜好戴耳环、手镯和项圈。服装花色和佩戴的小饰物，各地略有不同。上衣的长短有两个流派，大多数地区是短及腰的，少数地区上衣长及膝。

壮族花鞋是壮族的刺绣工艺之一，又称“绣鞋”，为妇女所用，流行于广西龙州等地。鞋头有钩，象龙船。分有后跟和无后跟两种。鞋底较厚，多用砂纸做成。针法有齐针、拖针、混针、盘针、堆绣、压绣等。在色彩上，年轻人喜用亮底起白花，常用石榴红、深红、青黄、绿等艳丽色，纹样有龙凤、双狮滚球、蝶花、雀等；老年人多用黑色、浅红、深红等厚色，纹样有云、龙、天地、狮兽等。

壮族妇女发式因地而异。广西龙胜一带的老年妇女不结髻，把长发翻过头顶打旋，然后用四尺黑布包好；青年女子头顶留长发，四周剪成披衽，顶心长发翻到前额，扎以白布，插上银梳；小孩头发则先剃光，戴上外婆送的银饰帽，长大才留顶心发。天峨一带的女子留长发而不打辫，已婚者结髻，梳顺后由左向右绕，扎头巾；少女梳一条长辫加刘海；少妇梳双辫；中老年结髻，垂于脑后。广东连山一带的发型宛若一条盘曲的蟠龙，贯以大簪，用青色绸布包缠。

壮族儿帽是壮族头饰工艺品。二十世纪三十年代流行于广西龙州壮族地区。剪纸刺绣，蝶恋花纹样。

中国民俗服饰-庄重大方,新颖别致的布依族服饰

布依族是我国古越人的后裔，自古以来就居住在我国气候温和、山川秀丽的南北盘江、红水河流域。早在新石器时代，布依族就进入了农耕社会，至今仍从事农业，其服饰鲜明地反映了温带气候和农耕经济文化特色。

布依族男女多喜欢穿蓝、青、黑、白等色布衣服。青壮年男子多包头巾，穿对襟短衣（或大襟长衣）和长裤。老年人大多穿对襟短衣或长衫。妇女的服饰各地不一，有的穿蓝黑色百褶长裙，有的喜欢在衣服上绣花，有的喜欢用白毛巾包头，带银质手镯、耳环、项圈等饰物。惠水、长顺一带女子穿大襟短衣和长裤，系绣花围兜，头裹家织格子布包帕。花溪一带少女衣裤上饰有“栏干”，系围腰，戴头帕，辫子盘压头帕上。镇宁扁担山一带的妇女的上装为大襟短衣，下装百褶大筒裙，上衣的领口、盘肩、衣袖都镶有"栏干"（即花边），裙料大都是用白底蓝花的蜡染布，她们习惯一次套穿几条裙子，系一条黑色镶花边的围腰带。婚前头盘发辫，戴结花头巾；婚后则改戴"假壳"，用青布和笋壳做成。在罗甸、望谟等地的布依族妇女，都穿大襟宽袖的短上衣和长裤。睛隆、花溪等地的妇女穿长到膝部的大襟短上衣和长裤，衣襟、领口、裤脚镶有花边，系绣有花卉图案的围腰，她们头上大多缠有青色花格头巾，有的脚上还穿细尖尖而朝上翘的绣花鞋，也有的穿细耳草鞋。都匀、独山、安龙等县部分地区布依族妇女的服装和汉族妇女基本相同。布依族妇女喜戴银手镯或骨手镯，戒指、银簪、项圈等饰品。

布依族服饰面料多为自织自染的土布，有白土布，也有色织布。色织布多为格子、条纹、梅花、辣子花、花椒、鱼刺等图案，多达两百多种。服饰色彩多为青蓝色底上配以多色花纹，有红、黄、蓝、白色等，即庄重大方，又新颖别致。反映了他们纯朴善良、温和热情的性格。

布依族服饰的制作集蜡染、扎染、挑花、织锦、刺绣等多种工艺技术于一身，反映了他们独有的审美特征除了同南方诸民族一样使用蓝靛染布以外，布依族还采用了古老的扎染技术，把织好的白布摺叠成各种图案，用麻线扎好进行浸染、漂洗，最后成为蓝底白花的各种图案。

布依族姑娘从小就有制作蜡染的灵气，她们所穿的衣服大都是自己亲手缝制的，合身得体，古朴典雅。姑娘们穿上自制的蜡染裙，由于冰纹和花纹排列的和谐完整、层次分明，走起路来富有变化，节奏感和韵律感强。这些工艺与图案的综合运用，再与人体线条统一起来，动静结合，给人以强烈的美的享受。

布依族服饰也反映了其传统文化心态及生活习俗和宗教信仰。每逢节日，布依族人民就把自己精心制作的服饰展示出来，作为美的竞赛。男女青年在表示爱慕时，姑娘们常用自织的布匹和衣服、手帕、鞋等作为信物。在布依族的婚姻中存有"不落夫家"之俗。姑娘必须通过"戴假壳"仪式才标志正式婚姻开始。"假壳"是一种帽子，形似簸箕，以竹笋壳为架，用青布结扎而成，戴时再加一块花帕子。布依族未婚姑娘都梳辫，婚后一段时间仍住娘家。在婚后当年的八九月到次年的四月期间的某一天，由新郎家的两位妇女趁新娘不备，将其搂住，强解发辫，换上"假壳"，之后方可到夫家生活。

中国民俗服饰-素雅,轻盈，自成一格的朝鲜族服饰

中国的朝鲜族，是部分人从明末清初陆续从朝鲜半岛移居东北逐渐形成的一个少数民族。其文化与朝鲜半岛的文化有着深厚的渊源。朝鲜族长期生活在风光秀丽、气候宜人、物产丰富的我国东北地区。在我国少数民族中，朝鲜族服装比较独特，呈出现素净、淡雅、轻盈的特点。

朝鲜族一般喜欢素白色，以示清洁、干净、朴素、大方，故朝鲜族自古有“白衣民族”之称，自称“白衣同胞”。民族服饰可分为官服、民服、节日服、丧服等。进入初期，朝鲜族人民多居于偏僻的山村，服饰的原料主要以自种自织的麻布和土布为主。二十世纪初，随着资本主义经济的渗透和近代文化的输入，机织布和丝绢、绸缎等面料开始传入，服饰的颜色也随之多样化了。 官服为过去历代王公贵族的服装，依官位、官职、身分而异，但基本式样大体一致。冕服为其代表，用黑色绸缎做团领，肩部有带色之龙，袖口画有火、华虫、宗彝等图案。裳用红绸缎缝制，裳前有藻、粉米、黼黻的图案。“藻取其洁，粉米取其养入，黼取其断，黻取背恶向善”。还有男痕迹女装之别。

男装白色居多，爱穿“灯笼裤”。男子的上衣衣短，斜襟、宽袖、左衽、无纽扣，前襟两侧各钉有一飘带，穿衣时系结在右襟上方。他们还喜欢外套黑色或其他颜色的带纽扣的“背褂”（坎肩）。也有外着道袍或朝鲜长袍者。道袍是过去士大夫、儒生的常服，后成为男子出门时的礼服。长袍当大衣穿，有单、夹、棉之分。冬天上穿短大衣或棉、毛大衣，下穿灯笼裤。这种裤子裤长腰宽，裤裆和裤管肥大，便于在炕上盘腿而坐。穿时将裤腰前部折起后系上腰带，裤管下口用布带系绑。

女装一般白色，短衣长裙。短衣有长长的白布带在右肩下方打蝴蝶结。长裙多有长皱褶。裙有缠裙、筒裙、长裙、短裙、围裙之分。年轻女子一般爱穿筒裙、短裙。年轻姑娘和少女多穿背心式的带褶筒裙，裙长过膝盖，便于劳动。衣裙的颜色五光十色。短衣长裙永远不变。随着纺织工业的发展，如今妇女们穿用的衣料颜色更是绚丽多彩、不拘一格。只有短衣长裙这一传统民族风格久久不变，因为它符合朝鲜族妇女的审美心理，充分反映了她们温顺、善良和勤劳淳朴的美德。

中老年妇女在中老年妇女多穿缠裙、长裙，冬天在上衣外加穿棉(皮)坎肩。缠裙为一幅未经缝合的裙料，由裙腰、裙摆、裙带组成。上窄下宽，裙长及脚面，裙摆较宽，裙上端有许多细褶，裙带酚冥在裙腰两侧，穿时用缠腰一圈后系结在右腰一侧。因为这种裙子很长，穿着时为了不使裙摆拖地，一般都把裙的一端从右边提上来掖在系带里。穿这种裙子时，里面必须加穿素白色的衬裙。

朝鲜族儿童多穿七彩上衣，色彩斑斓，好像彩虹在身，使孩子们显得更加聪慧可爱。关于七彩衣的起源，说法很多。有的认为是出于审美心理；有的认为是出于避邪的目的；还有的认为是过去朝鲜妇女善于保存各种颜色的布块，用来给孩子做衣服等等。

节日装基本款式同日常服饰，只在色彩上讲究。

朝鲜族服装的结构自成一格。上衣自肩至袖头的笔直线条同领子、下摆、袖肚的曲线，构成曲线与直线的组合，没有多余的装饰，体现了“白衣民族”的古老袍服的特点。

中国民俗服饰-以黑为质，以红为饰的佤族服饰

佤族，源于我国古代的“百濮”族群，分布在云南西南部怒山山脉南段，萨尔温江和澜沧江之间的广大山区。沧源佤族自治县和西盟佤族自治县是佤族的主要聚居地。这里山峦连绵，河流纵横，气候温和湿润，属亚热带山区，海拔均在2000米左右，平坝极少，历史上把这一片山区称为“阿佤山”。

佤族崇拜红色和黑色，服饰多数以黑为质，以红为饰，基本保留着古老的山地民族的特色。西盟地区的男子用黑布或红布缠头，上身穿无领短衣，裤子短而宽，裤筒一般宽一尺二寸，喜欢赤足。男青年“串姑娘”时，在黑上衣内要多穿一件白衬衫，有的头上还加鲜花。佤族传统的男子短发，头缠黑色或红色布包头，有的也包白色包头。包头的颜色是区别男子身份地位的标志之一。根据传统习俗，村寨有威望的老人和公认的英雄，以及民间歌手往往包红包头。过去包红色包头者还包括部落酋长和首领，其余多缠黑、白包头。黑布包头是佤族男子普遍喜爱缠裹的，他们认为缠得越高越美，越壮观。

佤族男子缠红色包头的习俗，据说与对火的崇拜有关。佤族人认为火是力量的源泉，过去每年要以村落为单位，举行取新火祭典。仪式由村寨头人或有威望的长者主持，他们以原始的摩擦方式取火。因为认为火是神圣的，因而火的颜色也是崇高的，于是村寨有身份地位的人就把像火一样的红颜色视为神圣之物缠于头上，以象征自己崇高的社会地位和显示自己神圣的权力。

各地的佤族男子外出时，常常是身佩长刀、弩弓和铜炮枪，挎织花“筒帕”。如果男子不佩长刀会被视为衣冠不整，如果不持枪弩则会被认为没有男子气概。因此，佩带长刀，身背枪弩的男子一向被看成是男性美与力量的象征。

佤族妇女多留长发，饰以银质发箍，有些地区用藤蔑或麻线编织发箍。披肩的长发上常用马尾制作的发网网住，发网上饰有银珠。女子着黑衣、红裙，上衣十分短小，盖胸露腹，无领，对襟，短袖。裙子过膝，常以红色为底，间有黑白绿黄条纹。耳悬银质大耳环，银环一至三个不等，项带二、三个银质项圈和若干彩色珠料，再佩上两三串鸟骨或贝壳制成项链，五光十色，十分耀眼。裸露的腰腹部缠绕若干竹圈藤圈，染成红或黑色，有的还雕饰有许多花纹。

生活在阿佤山边缘地区的孟连、澜沧、双江、耿马和沧源大部分佤族未婚女子，天蓝色或蓝色是她们的首选服装颜色，梳发盘辫，喜欢将假发一同辫盘于头上，并在乌黑的发辫上常插几朵盛开的山茶或幽香的白露花，有的还在发辫上装饰有两个用多种毛线织成的小绣球，显得活泼可爱。妇女婚后衣着颜色开始改变，黑色逐渐取代青色或天蓝色。留长发，梳发挽髻或编发辫，以彩线缠发，盘绕头上，再缀以彩色毛线球，比少女时代更加妩媚。老年妇女缠黑布包头，在左侧留有一截包头穗。另外，无论是青年还是老年妇女，她们的衣服上均喜欢缀钉数枚银泡或银质花饰；筒裙边间织有红、褐色几何纹图案；耳坠银质或竹藤质的大圆耳环；颈戴有大小不一的多个银项圈；手腕戴刻有各种花纹图案的银镯；小腿束数道漆色蔑圈；平时上山劳动或赶集，身不离竹编背箩和织花筒帕。

竹藤圈和银发圈是佤族妇女离不开的佩饰。佤族未成年的少女，从出生时算起，每增一岁，即在腰间或小腿处加一竹藤圈。过去许多人认为，从佤族妇女们所戴的竹藤圈个数，就可以判断出她们的实际年龄，故民间流传有“欲知年龄数脚圈”之说。

另外，阿佤山的妇女们还非常看重其筒裙的花纹图案，往往把自织的，上面有本民族风情特色图案的裙布视为最佳。常见的传统花纹图案有白鹇鸟翎纹、松鼠牙纹、箭尾羽翼纹、茅草纹等。每一种纹样都代表着一种较抽象的观念，如白鹇鸟翎纹象征吉祥和幸福，松鼠牙纹象征坚强与结实，箭尾羽翼纹象征勇敢与正直，茅草纹则象征刚直与朴实。能织出优美图案，清晰纹样的姑娘不仅为同伴们羡慕、敬仰和仿效，而且往往成为小伙子们迷恋和追求的对象。

中国民俗服饰-纳西族服饰,—“披星戴月”

纳西族居住在我国云南省的西北部和四川省的西南部，丽江纳西族自治县和川滇交界的泸沽湖地区是纳西族的两个主要聚居地，其余散居于中甸、维西、永胜、盐边、盐源、木里和西藏芒康等县。这里是属横断山脉地区，背靠青藏高原，面向云贵高原，境内山川壮丽，河流纵横，景色秀美，民风古朴，文化底蕴身厚，被视为是美丽、神秘而又富足的“香格里拉”。今天，纳西族聚居的丽江古城已被列为世界文化遗产，受到海内外的关注。


古雅纯朴的纳西族服饰是其传统文化的一朵奇葩。古代的纳西人，男穿短衣、长裤，女穿短衣、长裙。维西一带，男子的裤子不过膝盖，女裙以盖膝为度。他们不论男女，大都不穿鞋袜，妇女则束花布腰带，外披一块羊皮或毛毡。清代以前，纳西族民间衣服的颜色以黑白为主，青壮年多着白色，而老年人穿黑色，因黑色表示尊贵。土司们则有朝廷赐给的华贵官服和官帽，在见官、迎宾、拜客时穿用，平时很少穿戴，在家时他们多穿黑锦缎做的长袍马褂，戴瓜瓣式小帽。土司妻女穿的裙子，长及足背，以示高贵。

雍正初年以来，受“改土归流”的政策的影响，清代历任官吏曾多次明令纳西族移风易俗，因而纳西族的服饰发生了很大的变化，到中华人民共和国成立前夕，丽江一带男子服饰与临近汉族已基本相同，穿长袍马褂或对襟短衫，下着长裤。妇女服装，除个别地方仍保持穿裙的习俗外，已改穿长裤，但整个服饰，仍具有鲜明的民族特色。

丽江妇女上穿宽腰的大褂，外穿坎肩，下穿长裤，系百褶围腰，穿船形绣花鞋。衣服多为蓝、白、黑三色，在领、袖、襟等处绣有花边，朴素大方。已婚妇女在头顶梳发髻，戴圆形的纱帽，未婚女子则将发辫盘在脑后，戴布头巾或黑绒小帽。中甸一带的纳西族姑娘出嫁是用红布缠头，并戴银饰品。维西纳西族姑娘头饰与丽江装束大致相同，但未婚姑娘喜欢用刻有花纹图案的圆形银片和彩色毛线装饰发辫和头部，显得别具一格。而宁蒗纳西族妇女传统头饰更有特点，少女梳一条小辫，佩戴五彩缤纷的珠串，年满十三岁行过成年礼后，就换着成人装束。成年妇女蓄长发，用牦牛尾毛掺在头发内，梳编成粗大的假辫盘在头顶上，以大为美，另外还在假辫之外缠上一大圈蓝、黑色丝绒，并将丝线后垂至腰部。也有的妇女出门时，用一段头帕从左至右将鼻子和下鄂遮住，只留两只眼睛在外面顾盼，这样既可抵御风寒，又突出了妇女的羞涩娇美。

纳西族妇女的羊皮背饰是其服饰中最具特色之处，蕴含了丰富的文化内涵。这种背饰用羊皮制成，披于背部，故俗称为“羊皮披肩”。羊皮披肩多精选黑色、白色的绵羊或山羊皮，经过反复揉制后，剪裁而成。不同地区的羊皮披肩形制不同，中甸、维西等地的纳西族妇女羊皮披肩几乎没有什么装饰。丽江一带的纳西族妇女的羊皮披肩以毛色纯黑为最佳，上部横镶一段黑氆氇（毛织品）或黑呢子，内衬天蓝色棉布，其下用七对皮条穗订缀有并列的七个圆形彩线绣花布盘，传统羊皮披肩的肩部还缀有两个圆形彩线绣花布盘。披戴时用前面的两条绣花布长带在胸前相系，带端绣有海螺、水波浪、盆花、灯笼、蜜蜂、蝴蝶等图案，还有携手跳舞的人群像，据说是象征纳西族人民如蜂似蝶的奔忙，以辛勤的劳动换取甜蜜生活的炽热感情。

纳西族羊皮披肩，以妇女皮戴为主，过去男子也曾披用。这种披肩首先源于纳西族先民的游牧生活，它的发展经历了三个阶段。远古的时候，羊皮披肩是纳西族先民的主要御寒工具，那时，纳西族是山地游牧部落，以放牧为主，他们剥下羊皮披挂在肩上以御风寒。由于劳动需要背负重物，羊皮披肩又多了一个负重垫背的功能。随着社会文化的进一步发展，人们审美意识的提高，羊皮披肩开始向适用美观的方向发展，而且装饰的功能日益突出，成了今天纳西族妇女特有的一种装束。 关于纳西族的羊皮披肩，在民间和学术界有着多种推测和解释，关于它的神话传说也很多。相传在很久以前，纳西族居住在湖畔的大山上，过着宁静的生活。不料有一年出现了一个凶狠的旱魔，他放出八个太阳与原有的太阳一起，轮番烤灼大地，人间没有黑夜，大地处处焦黄。有个叫英姑的纳西族姑娘，立志要倒东海请龙王。她用鸟的羽毛编织成了一件五光十色的“顶阳衫”，披在背上向东方奔去。英姑到了东海边，恰巧遇上龙三太子，两人相爱。龙王派龙三太子陪她回家乡解除旱情。可恶的旱魔施记将龙三太子陷入深潭，让大象和狮子把守潭口，可怜的英姑与旱魔一连搏斗了九天，终因气衰力竭，倒在了地上，从此，这地方就叫“英姑墩”（即丽江）。龙三太子拼死冲出深潭，呼叫着扑向英姑倒下的地方，变成纵横丽江坝子的泉水。白沙三多神见状造了一条雪龙，一连吞下了七个太阳，并把变冷后的太阳又吐到地上，只留下一个太阳将之变成了月亮。三多神把七个冷太阳捏成了七个闪光的星星，镶在英姑的顶阳衫，以资表彰。为了纪念英姑，纳西族姑娘依照英姑的顶阳衫做成了精美的羊皮披肩，象征勤劳勇敢，世代相传，沿袭至今，因而羊皮披肩含有“披星戴月”之意，寓意纳西族勤劳辛苦。

事实上，纳西族从古至今都很崇拜青蛙，将青蛙奉为仅次于人类的智慧生灵，不准伤害，禁止捕食，违者则视作造孽犯罪。《东巴经》里不仅有黄金大蛙的描述，而且有蛙式羊皮披肩来历的记载，那些圆形图案也有说是代表青蛙的眼睛，因此它也带有一种图腾崇拜的历史遗痕。

中国民俗服饰-七十二寨侗族妇女服饰

服饰历来是侗族人民追求美的重要组成部分，也是侗族社会发展的重要标志。因各地生活习惯有所不同，侗族服饰也多种多样，各有差异。侗族女服饰又分为盛装和便装两种，盛装尤其富于传统的民族特色，荟萃了民族工艺的精华。

侗族是一个有着悠久历史文化的民族。从民间传说中，侗族先民们很早就用一种手摇纺车织布，开始了原始的纺织业，采用野麻纤维，织成布匹，缝制衣服。据资料载：“北宋时靖州等地纺织的斑细布、白练布、白绢等均负盛名，有的成为进奉朝廷的贡品”。康熙年间，胡奉衡在《黎平竹杖词》就有“峒旁矜夸产古州”、“松火夜偕诸女伴，纺成峒布纳官租”之句。可见，当时侗族纺织文化已发展到一定高度。

贵州省榕江县“七十二寨”侗族女服饰着色浓重，工艺精巧，美观大方，艳丽多彩，耀眼悦目。女盛装一般由圆领、宽袖、胸襟、围腰、袖口、百褶裙、小腿布套、龙舟形绣花鞋等部分组成。其制作方法，一般是分块挑、绣，再连缀成套，或将已制作好的各种图案的部件分别缝于各个部位。制作一套女盛装，特别是挑花、绣花，全配齐往往要几年时间才完成。女盛装，一般过侗年节、吃新节、看斗牛或踩芦笙以及走亲访友时才穿戴，回家后又换衣收藏。每个女青年至少有三至五件盛装，多的达十几件。女盛装还配有各种银饰，有头饰、颈饰、耳饰、盛装饰、童帽等几大类，一百多种花样。头饰有银花、银梳，颈饰有项圈、项链等，手饰有手镯、玉石手镯，耳饰有银耳环、金耳环等，盛装饰有银扣等。 侗族女童盛装还配有银铃，分别锁定在绣花衣上，侗族女盛装，工艺十分复杂，比如女盛装百褶裙，其裙子长到膝盖，全属青色，织裙子的布与织衣的布不同，裙布很稀，象蚊帐布，经过作米浆—染—-洗—捶—晒—蒸等工序，前后需两个月左右，才能制成，一条裙子约用布5-6米。又如女童猫头帽，一般青色和蓝色，形象象猫头，无帽檐、只有两个铜猫耳翘起，帽耳里缝有羊毛、猫耳下贴有银铜人像、玉石头像等装饰，有和尚头、老虎头、狮子头等各种各样的图案，帽子后面有铜铃、各种图案银钩，小孩戴帽走亲访友，一路上叮叮当当作响，据说还可以避邪。

满族的传统服饰--4

坎肩

清朝时兴穿坎肩，应当说是在进关之后，由于民族融合，受汉族衣着的影响的结果。坎肩并不是满族原有的服装，是由汉族的“半臂”演变来的。据记载“半臂”的样式始于隋朝，当时很简单，就是无领、无袖、对襟。坎肩还有背心、蔽甲方、披袄、搭护等名。坎肩分为对襟、捻襟、一字襟、琵琶襟等多种。妇女穿的坎肩还要绣花锒边。坎肩有棉有夹，或丝或布，多套在袍子外面。有一种“巴图鲁”（满语勇士）坎肩在八旗子弟中很流行。后来有的加上两袖，被称为“鹰膀”，更显英武。

满族的传统服饰--3

马褂

马褂，是满族喜爱的服饰，在长袍外面套马褂，有“长袍马褂”的美称。马褂分为大襟、对襟、琵琶襟等多种形式。马褂是满族骑射时穿着的一种褂子，后成为日常罩于袍子外面的服装。高领对襟，四面开禊，长及腰部，袖子稍短，袍袖可露出三、四寸，将袍袖卷于褂袖上面，即所谓大、小袖。清朝沈阳满族诗人缪润绂描述说：“卷袖长衫称体裁，巧将时样斗妆台，谁知低护莲船处，争及罗裙一击来。”可见当时满族卷袖服饰极为时兴。清初，穿马褂仅限于八旗士兵，至康雍年间满族男子穿用马褂的习俗已盛行，青年喜着马褂以示武勇。以后，由于清帝提倡骑射，经常以马褂赏赐臣下，竟成为一种“礼服”。皇帝赏给“黄马褂”也成为极高的荣誉。

满族的传统服饰 --2

旗袍

旗袍是现代流行服装之一，在国际服饰橱窗里，享有很高的盛誉。旗袍是从满族古老的服装演变而来的。

旗袍，满语称“衣介”。古时泛指满洲、蒙古、汉军八旗男女穿的衣袍。清初衣袍式样有几大特点：无领、箭袖、左衽、四开衩、束腰。箭袖，是窄袖口，上加一块半圆形袖头，形似马蹄，又称“马蹄袖”。马蹄袖平日绾起，出猎作战时则放下，覆盖手背，冬季可御寒。四开衩，即袍下摆前后左右，开衩至膝。左衽和束腰，紧身保暖，腰带一束，行猪时，可将干粮、用具装进前襟。男子的长袍多是蓝、灰、青色，女子的旗装多为白色。 满族旗袍还有一个特点，就是在旗袍外套上坎肩。坎肩有对襟、捻襟、琵琶襟、一字襟等。穿上坎肩骑马驰聘显得十分精干利落。

在满族南迁辽沈，入中原后，与汉族同田共耦，受汉族“大领大袖”服饰的影响，由箭袖变成了喇叭袖，四开衩演变为左右开衩。

至本世纪30年代，满族男女都穿直统式的宽襟大袖长袍。女性旗袍下摆至（左骨右干）（小腿），有绣花卉纹饰。男性旗袍下摆及踝，无纹饰。40年代后，受国内外新式服饰新潮的冲击，满族男性旗袍已废弃，女性旗袍由宽袖变窄袖，直筒变紧身贴腰，臀部略大，下摆回收，长及踝。逐渐形成今日各色各样讲究色彩装饰和人体线条美的旗袍样式。由于旗袍非常适合中国妇女的体形和贤淑的个性、民族的气质，后来这一源于满族的传统服装渐渐成为中华民族文化宝库中的一朵苛葩，受到国内外妇女的青睐和赞赏。

中国民俗服饰-满族的传统服饰--1

满族历史悠久，文化发达。其服饰高雅华丽，在我国民族服饰文化中独树一帜，历史上曾对我国的服饰发展有过很大影响。 古代，满族先世的服饰，一年四季皆穿袍服，分为光皮和毛皮两种。其后，“女工所织，只有麻布”。清初，在宁古塔地方，“满洲富者绩麻为寒衣，捣麻为絮；贫者衣狍皮，不知有布帛”。直到康熙年间，“今居宁古塔者，衣食粗足，则皆服绸缎，天寒披重羊裘，或猞猁狲、狼皮大呼。惟贫者乃服布”。这与从前衣皮的时代，不可同日而语。 明朝南迁到辽东地区的满族人，他们的服装是布、皮兼用。到努尔哈赤率部起兵后，他们的服饰杂乱无章，出现“上下同服”的现象。直到皇太极时代，冠服始有定制。入关之后，从皇帝到兵丁之衣冠，寒暑更换，皆有定制，不可逾越。至于闲散旗人，男皆袍服，以绸缎或布制做，外套马褂，直到辛亥革命，一直是这样。满族妇女的旗袍，多有发展，喜用绸缎制做。在北京等地盛行“十八镶”的做法，即镶十八道衣边才算好看，样式也变成宽袍大袖，可算是清朝的时装。辛亥革命后，旗袍的样式由肥变瘦，并有长、短袖之分。经过不断改进，一般样式为：直领，窄袖，右开大襟，钉扣绊，紧腰身，衣长至膝下，两侧开叉。我国妇女穿上合体的旗袍，既表现出身材美，又文雅大方，现已成为我国妇女所喜爱的中式服装。 努尔哈赤在统一女真各部落，建立后金政权，推行八旗制度以后，满族人均在旗，因此他们所穿的袍服便称为"旗袍"。满族贵族入关统治全国后，清太宗皇太极认为清朝帝王应当维持本民族的生活方式和传统习惯，尤其是维持统治者的民族标志的服饰制度，以此作为固国之本。于是便着手制定和完善清朝的衣冠制，并三令五申，不许亲王大臣学汉人穿褒衣博带、宽袍大袖等。要求在宫廷里的侍女奴仆都着满族服装，汉人成年男子衣着发式必须遵从满族的习惯，只有在死后入殓殡葬时方可用汉人衣冠。

Arts in Tibet, Gifts from Heaven （9）

A few tools, such as hollow bones for making long threads and moulds for making leaves, are applied. Monks take great pride in doing religious work.

Arts in Tibet, Gifts from Heaven （8）

Butter sculptures

Tibetan butter sculptures cover a variety of subjects, like deities, flowers, animals and Buddhist motifs. Traditionally, they are displayed on monastery altars and family shrines as offerings.
Butter sculptures, mainly made of butter and mineral pigments, are modeled by hand. Since butter melts easily, monk artists need to work in cold conditions. They dip their hands into cold water to make their fingers cold enough to model the butter without melting it.

Arts in Tibet, Gifts from Heaven （6）

Tsha Tsha are mini-statues of Buddha, stupas, or Buddhist scriptures done in relief images made out of a one-side mould or round stupas completed by two-side mould. They are mainly used to fill the inner shrines of bigger stupas, statues, or special shrines, and worshiped at the places like Tsha-khang, snow mountains and caves.

Tibetans make Tsha Tsha to accumulate Buddhist merit. They are also used as objects for dispelling illness or praying for good luck.

Arts in Tibet, Gifts from Heaven （5）

Tsha Tsha

Tsha Tsha , a Tibetan transliteration of the Sanskrit word, is the clay votive tablet in Tibetan Buddhism, a typical representation of Tibetan Buddhist arts.

Arts in Tibet, Gifts from Heaven （4）

The musical rhythm is created by the beats of drums and cymbals that punctuate every movement, and by the singing performers. The rapidly chanted narration alternates with the sung dialogues repeated in the chorus. The dance movements are exaggerated and vigorous.
The performance ends with a blessing ritual that is also an occasion for the audience to present hada (a long piece of silk used as a greeting gift among Tibetans and Mongolians) and donations.

Arts in Tibet, Gifts from Heaven （3）

Tibetan Opera

Tibetan Opera is hailed as "the living fossil of Tibetan culture." Various exaggerated masks are the highlight of Tibetan Opera and identify the roles the actors play. For example, a red mask represents the king; a green, the queen; a yellow, Lamas and deities.

Tibetan Opera boasts a history of more than 600 years, about 400 years longer than Peking Opera. Based on Buddhist stories and Tibetan history, the performance of Tibetan Opera follows fixed procedures, including religious rituals, singing, dancing, story telling and blessing ceremonies.

Arts in Tibet, Gifts from Heaven （2）

The pigments contribute greatly to the uniqueness of Tangka. They are made from natural materials such as rare metals and plants, and carefully mixed and processed by hand. Thus a well-kept Tangka still shines gorgeously generation after generation.

Tangkas used at home are usually not longer than 1 meter, but the giant Tangka in the Buddhist Portrait Unfolding Ritual can be big enough to cover the side of a mountain.

It is, indeed, a magnificent spectacle. The Buddhists take out the Tangka treasured by the temple and exhibit it in public to show the Pure Land of Buddhism. They deliver speeches, and sing and dance to commemorate the mighty Buddha.

Arts in Tibet, Gifts from Heaven （1）

Visitors to Tibet are invariably impressed by the local people's power of imagination and boldness of their artistic expression, from architecture to clothing and decorations, from furniture to articles of daily use. Religious doctrines have not stifled their creativity. Rather, they have given wings to their imagination.

Tangka








For both lamas and votaries, Tangka is an important tool for self-cultivation. By worshipping Tangka, they may be blessed with good deeds and rewards.

Tangka, seen in every monastery and family shrine in Tibet, has been in vogue in Tibet for centuries. It is the art of Tibetan scroll-banner painting and mainly depicts the images of Buddha, eminent monks and folk customs.

Tangka painters have to follow a strict painting model, which has been passed down through generations. The original is said to be hidden among the secret sutras, recording all the rules and scales of at least eight different types of Tangka painting. No one is allowed to change them.

Behind the Changing Masks （2）

"It usually takes one month to make a mask, and it has to be in the summer so the paint can dry quickly," Zeng says. He has even tried to make a mask the size of a bean.
In 2004, Zeng became quite a controversial figure. He triggered a public backlash when he claimed he had successfully decoded the secrets behind Sichuan Opera face changing, an old skill considered to be a confidential national treasure. Many people accused Zeng of tainting this art.

In fact, it was only after hard work, watching piles of videos and repeated testing that Zeng found nylon was the most ideal material to make masks for face changing.
After uncovering the mystery behind face changing, Zeng now looks at it all much more rationally.
"Face changing is only a trick of Sichuan Opera," he says. "Without the rich cultural background behind it, it is only a kid show."
In spite of the controversy, Zeng's success has won him respect from Sichuan Opera masters, such as Peng Denghuai, who is known as the "king of face changing in Sichuan Opera".
Though Zeng is not the world's fastest face-changing artist, he can change up to 10 masks in a show. But he doesn't think the number of masks one can change in a show is the soul of mask changing: "If one only pursues the number, it is hard for audiences to enjoy the beauty of masks."
Opera masks have become the most important part of Zeng's life - even his bed is in the shape of a big mask.

"Life is a dreamlike opera," he says. "I quite enjoy my memories of working on these masks."
Zeng now spends all his energy and time creating a 32-meter-long opera mask, filled with many famous characters from classical Chinese masterpieces such as Outlaws of the Marsh, Journey to the West and The Romance of Three Kingdoms. Zeng hopes his work will make more people aware of this important national treasure so it will live on for generations.

Behind the Changing Masks （1）

Face changing, better known as Bian Lian, is considered one of the most mysterious of China's traditional performing arts. Originally a trick of the Sichuan Opera, only a few Chinese opera masters have been able to grasp the skill.













Zeng Jingui, 70, is one of the few. As he switches his masks in such quick succession, it seems like magic.
Zeng retired in 1990 and since then he has developed a new hobby - making his own masks. So far, he has created more than 1,000 delicate masks in the style of Peking and Xiangju operas, and he displays them in every corner of his home. He spends most of his time rummaging through various markets seeking suitable materials to make new masks. His crafty hands have turned buttons into eyes and nylon ropes into beards.
Stepping into Zeng's home, you will find many different glamorous and colorful masks covering the walls of the living room, most of them homemade. The bulk of these were inspired by the famous characters from The Romance of Three Kingdoms.
A renowned artist and one-time manager of Changsha Xiangju Opera House in Central China's Hunan province, Zeng has devoted himself to mask making and exploring the secrets of mask changing.

Culture Identity of China Contemporary Art

Chinese contemporary art is a wide-scope concept. The world "identity", a terminology first used in the global Cultural Study Wave, refers to the perspective from which cultural characteristics of an ethnic group or a special community is analyzed. The cultural identity of Chinese contemporary art here means a fresh perspective from which Chinese culture and arts are viewed. It is necessary to discuss characteristics of Chinese culture when Chinese contemporary art has become a window through which people from the outside world get to know about China.
First, the ecosystem of Chinese contemporary art. As we all know, an intermediary art operation system is required when an artwork is turned into a cultural commodity or between creation by artists and acceptance by the society. But for many years in China this system is a uniform operation tightly controlled by the state. Except a few state-owned art museums, artists found no other places to display their creations to general public and no dealers or collectors transacted artworks as consumer products.
China's art ecosystem has undergone structural changes since the 1990s. The construction of art museums, both state-owned and private ones, has seen rapid growth, thanks to the importance attached by governments at various levels. 5 to 8 new museums will be completed in Beijing before the 2008 Olympic Games and the figure for Shanghai will reach at least 30 before the 2010 World Exposition. China is embracing an era of art museums in the 21st century. Second, art creation has become an occupation that artists can freely choose to take at their own will. We can see it from the 798 Art District in Beijing. Many studios, galleries and art organizations thrive there, forming a small ecosystem ranging from art creation to art display and transaction. Third, art market is growing in an unusually fast speed and art consumption events like gallery expositions or auction fairs have become major attractions in China. Every year at least two large-scale art expositions and no less than eight important art auction fairs take place in Beijing. For instance, the completion ceremony of New Poly Plaza, a new landmark in the eastern part of Beijing, was celebrated in the form of an art auction fair. Artworks have become new priorities of private investment in China and many believe that investing in art is the quickest way to make profits.

In this triangle structure, art museums play an important role, because they serve as the largest platform that provides cultural service to general public. And I think the museum system in USA has much experience for Chinese colleagues to draw upon from in this regard. In fact, we have had frequent discussions about how Chinese museums today should address the needs of contemporary art development and held many meetings in NAMOC discussing what we should do in the buoyant context of world contemporary art. Last year NAMOC hosted a forum for Asian museum directors which received support of Chinese Cultural Minister Mr. Sun Jiazheng and even drew interest of Premier Wen Jiabo. We believe that art museums cannot attract the audience from various circles and meet diversified needs for art unless a museum culture is developed.

For this end, we should give priority to the following three aspects.
First, exhibitions should be designed in accordance with various needs of the society and structural richness should be given much emphasis. For example, NAMOC exhibits a wide scope of exhibitions every year, including traditional art, folk art and contemporary art. This diverse exhibition portfolio helps to nurture Chinese people's habit to visit art museums on a regular basis. The total attendance has amounted to 330,000 in the first five months this year.
Second, educational programs should be launched in art museums. Every weekend NAMOC hosts lectures delivered by experts in visual art. In addition, we have developed a wide scope of outreach events for children and more than 200 volunteers serve as visitor guides. For exhibitions of special subjects, we organize targeted visitors to watch. For example, peasant workers and their children were invited to view the exhibition "Farmers · Farmers" last winter in NAMOC. In China many peasants have left their homes in the countryside to find employment opportunities in cities and they are called "peasant workers". It has now become a major social phenomenon and the government is making every possible effort to solve social and economic problems rising from this urbanization process. But to meeting cultural needs of these migrant workers, art museums are absolutely required as important stakeholders. We have put equal emphasis on art education of college students. Under the sponsorship of Bohai Bank, we provided free access to the Guggenheim exhibition "300 Years of American Art" in NAMOC to 100,000 Chinese college students who discussed about characteristics of American art and why college students need art during the exhibition.
Third, China in its opening process needs to assimilate the best of foreign cultures. With the support of Chinese Cultural Ministry, we have established exchange and cooperation relationship with museums of many countries in the world, such as the Pompidou Center in Paris, Guggenheim Museum and Museum of Modern Art from US and Tate Art Museum in London. Two weeks ago NAMOC signed cooperation agreements with three German museums under the presence of Chinese President Hu Jintao and German President Horst Koelher during Hu's visit to Germany. In addition, NAMOC hosts five to six large-scale international exhibitions even' year and meanwhile presents Chinese art abroad. For example, four NAMOC exhibitions will be exhibited in the second half of this year in South Korea, Japan, Russia and Austria respectively.

While China's art museums are prospering, they are faced with problems, one of which is the shortage of professionals. For many years courses on museum studies and art management have yet to be offered in China's institutions of higher learning. But US has notable advantages in this regard. I suggest that China and US should launch cooperation programs in training art museum professionals, which will be beneficial to the development of Chinese museums as well as China's cultural exchange with the rest of the world.

Second, evaluate the development of Chinese contemporary art from the perspective of China's own cultural context.
I. We should have a thorough knowledge of Chinese art in the 20th century before we try to understand Chinese contemporary art. Chinese art began to experience collisions and clashes with Western art from the early 20th century. Robert Hughes used the phrase "new shock" to describe the evolutions and changes that modernism triggered out in the early 1920s in West. For the 20th-centui-y China, modernism brought about so-called "Western shock". I notice that many Western friends, no matter what fields they are involved in — political, economic or cultural, all show respect for Chinese classical art but have inadequate knowledge about Chinese art since the 20th century. In many works on the history of world art, Chinese art was only introduced in the ancient-period part and the 20th-century part is dominated by the Western art, in particular, modern art. Chinese scholars, however, hold that the 20th-century Chinese art has distinctive modem characteristics that differ from Western modem art. For instance, art and tribulation, art and war, art and revolution and art and China's construction, are all fresh cultural subjects that feature Chinese characteristics and are based on realities of China. NAMOC has now a collection of nearly 100,000 artworks of such subjects. I also notice that American universities have added the subject of globalism to their art history curriculum since the 1980s and many American museums have begun to study Chinese art in the 20th century. Therefore China and US have worthy cooperation programs in the field of art history research, in particular, between their museums, that is, reviewing modem Chinese art from a global perspective.
II. Chinese contemporary' art is seeing a dynamic momentum of development, particularly characterized by globalization and urbanization process's impacts on contemporary artists. Many artists live in cities and continue to portray urban changes in their creations. In addition, some artists dwell in the conjunction areas between cities and the countryside and thus can comment on urban changes from a distance. For example, there are many artist villages in the suburb of Beijing, among which Songzhuang Village houses at least one thousand artists and their studios. For three consecutive sessions, Shanghai Biennale features urban subjects of architecture, new media and design, discussing about cultural transformation in the context of urbanization.
III. Visual characteristics of contemporary art are also worthy subjects to be discussed. Chinese artists today, like artists from other nations, are also using new media and material in their creations. But their creations are valuable because they are based on the artists' indigenous life experience in China.
Contemporary art must address common cultural experiences of mankind as a whole today; sometimes contemporary artists have sensitive foresights. But Chinese contemporary art can never become simple copies of the international trend. It should be based on diverse social realities of China and only by doing that can it contribute fresh Chinese experience to the international community.
Chinese artists learn international art, in particular, Western art both intensively and extensively, while the international art community's knowledge about Chinese art is far from adequate. I believe that only when artists and scholars from the rest of the world has as thorough understanding about Chinese art as their Chinese counterparts can Chinese contemporary art be truly recognized from a cultural perspective. For that end, I hope art organizations and artists from China and US can have more opportunities to discuss the topic of contemporary art. Undoubtedly, today's exchange is a dialogue with constructive importance.
I. We should have a thorough knowledge of Chinese art in the 20th century before we try to understand Chinese contemporary art. Chinese art began to experience collisions and clashes with Western art from the early 20th century. Robert Hughes used the phrase "new shock" to describe the evolutions and changes that modernism triggered out in the early 1920s in West. For the 20th-centui-y China, modernism brought about so-called "Western shock". I notice that many Western friends, no matter what fields they are involved in — political, economic or cultural, all show respect for Chinese classical art but have inadequate knowledge about Chinese art since the 20th century. In many works on the history of world art, Chinese art was only introduced in the ancient-period part and the 20th-century part is dominated by the Western art, in particular, modern art. Chinese scholars, however, hold that the 20th-century Chinese art has distinctive modem characteristics that differ from Western modem art. For instance, art and tribulation, art and war, art and revolution and art and China's construction, are all fresh cultural subjects that feature Chinese characteristics and are based on realities of China. NAMOC has now a collection of nearly 100,000 artworks of such subjects. I also notice that American universities have added the subject of globalism to their art history curriculum since the 1980s and many American museums have begun to study Chinese art in the 20th century. Therefore China and US have worthy cooperation programs in the field of art history research, in particular, between their museums, that is, reviewing modem Chinese art from a global perspective.

II. Chinese contemporary' art is seeing a dynamic momentum of development, particularly characterized by globalization and urbanization process's impacts on contemporary artists. Many artists live in cities and continue to portray urban changes in their creations. In addition, some artists dwell in the conjunction areas between cities and the countryside and thus can comment on urban changes from a distance. For example, there are many artist villages in the suburb of Beijing, among which Songzhuang Village houses at least one thousand artists and their studios. For three consecutive sessions, Shanghai Biennale features urban subjects of architecture, new media and design, discussing about cultural transformation in the context of urbanization.

III. Visual characteristics of contemporary art are also worthy subjects to be discussed. Chinese artists today, like artists from other nations, are also using new media and material in their creations. But their creations are valuable because they are based on the artists' indigenous life experience in China.

Contemporary art must address common cultural experiences of mankind as a whole today; sometimes contemporary artists have sensitive foresights. But Chinese contemporary art can never become simple copies of the international trend. It should be based on diverse social realities of China and only by doing that can it contribute fresh Chinese experience to the international community.

Chinese artists learn international art, in particular, Western art both intensively and extensively, while the international art community's knowledge about Chinese art is far from adequate. I believe that only when artists and scholars from the rest of the world has as thorough understanding about Chinese art as their Chinese counterparts can Chinese contemporary art be truly recognized from a cultural perspective. For that end, I hope art organizations and artists from China and US can have more opportunities to discuss the topic of contemporary art. Undoubtedly, today's exchange is a dialogue with constructive importance.

Spree in the Weddings

Wedding Ceremony Reflects Cultural Exchange
The Westernization of weddings is becoming a "pop" phenomenon. With Chinese Valentine's Day on August 19, it seems that more and more Chinese people are giving their wedding ceremonies a Western face, literally, by hiring expats to perform Western-style wedding ceremonies.
"It all comes down to appearances," says American Anthony Ford, who performed nearly 50 wedding ceremonies last year. Expat "ministers" do not require licenses and their role is simply to be part of the performance. "Without an expat for a minister, the image of authenticity would be severely compromised. And to fulfill your dream in the most convincing manner, it's vital that you make it look like the real thing."
Performance is key in a city whose love of pop culture and thirst for "wo ai ni" ballads permeates everyday life. "Western weddings are, theoretically, based on love. They're seen as more romantic," says Ford. "Couples feel that, by doing something different, they make their weddings more memorable."
However, acceptance is not guaranteed. According to Ford, there are still many people who feel it's ridiculous and refuse to attend these ceremonies on account of differences in beliefs. Gong Yin, who has been working in the wedding business for five years, adds, "It may seem [to some] as an unnecessary act of disloyalty to [one's] native customs."

Is the Westernization of weddings inevitable? Sun Jie, manager of Shanghai Bride Wedding, thinks so. As Shanghai becomes increasingly international, "People are just going with the flow. If you see your friend saying vows before a white priest, you'll be inclined to follow suit." But cross-cultural exchanges work in both ways. As weddings become more secular, "many Westerners choose to hold Chinese-style wedding ceremonies. Some come explicitly to China for this purpose," says Gong.
With one of the highest disposable incomes in the nation, Shanghainese lovebirds are increasingly willing to spend large amounts of money on their weddings, and Western jet-setters are constantly looking for unique ways to celebrate their unions. "There will always be businessmen ready to take advantage of [this]," says Gong. "In the end, it doesn't matter how you commemorate it, as long as you enjoy yourself."
Meanwhile, traditional Chinese wedding ceremony is especially welcomed by expats in China. A Chinese lady, Miss Luo, and her Chinese culture fan husband, Frenchman Yoann, held their wedding ceremony at Beijing's Grand View Garden, a garden modeled on the famous Chinese novel "Dream of the Red Chamber."
Miss Luo and her bridegroom met each other two years ago when she was studying in France. Both Yoann and his parents adore Chinese traditional culture very much. When the young lovers decided to get married this year, they chose to have an elegant Chinese-style wedding ceremony.
To make full preparations for holding an authentic Chinese wedding ceremony, Yoann's parents flew to Beijing. Miss Luo and Yoann have also watched many videos to learn the traditional etiquettes.
It's estimated that it costed them around 6000 RMB or about 750 US dollars to hold such an elaborate ceremony in the garden.

Beijing Improves Museum Services

Beijing has registered 140 museums, with approximately every 100,000 residents sharing one, official statistics show.
At least 40 museums have opened to public in Beijing over the past decade, a fast growing period compared with the fact that 100 museums were established from 1949, when the People's Republic of China was founded, to 1997, according to Shu Xiaofeng, deputy director of Beijing Municipal Administration of Cultural Heritage.
The ratio of the number of museums against population is close to that of the developed countries, said Shu.
Just in the first half of this year, seven new museums began to receive visitors, bringing more opportunities for the 13 million local population and mushrooming tourists.

Shu attributed the rapid development of museums to people's increasing demand for cultural activities and the active role played by more individuals, enterprises and organizations in investment.
In the first half of this year, non-governmental investors have established museums highlighting Chinese movies, post and stamps, telecommunications, folk customs and China's imperial civil examination system in Beijing.
Beijing Museums Train Staff in Seven Foreign Languages
Museums in Beijing are trying to train their staff in seven foreign languages to serve tourists during the 2008 Olympic Games.

Thirty museums in the capital will provide services in English, Japanese, French, German, Spanish, Arabic and Korean, according to the Beijing Municipal Administration of Cultural Heritage.
Currently, major museums in Beijing offer services in Chinese, English, French and Japanese.
"Several large museums like the Palace Museum (Forbidden City) have started the training programs," Ha Jun, an official from the administration's museum department, told Xinhua on Wednesday.
But museums of different types will have their own focus, he said. Museums like the Capital Museum might provide services in more than seven foreign languages while the Confucius Temple and the Imperial Academy, favored by East Asian tourists, will have more Korean and Japanese-speaking staff.
A total of 11,900 museum employees will receive language training.
"It will be rather tough to develop the multilingual crew in one year. Big museums will recruit volunteers and others will provide audio guides in different languages," Ha said.
Besides language training, the museums are also working to improve facilities for the disabled.
The Palace Museum has installed lifts for wheelchair users and seven museums of ancient Chinese architecture like the Zhihua Temple have equipped themselves with barrier-free facilities.

What's Hot in October

Autumn colors fall

Beijing lays on the color this season with displays of red autumn leaves conjuring beautiful scenes at the Fragrant Hills (Xiangshan). The Red Autumn Leaves Culture Festival is held from October 12 to November 4. Leaves of the massive maple trees in the mountains glow warm hues of red in the sunlight on the hills. According to a Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks gardener, maple tree leaves turn from green to red when the difference in temperature between day and night reaches 10 degrees Celsius. This year's high rainfall provides even better conditions for the trees to put on their pretty natural show.
To get there, take bus No 698, 714, 630, or 318.

Future of opera

Select audiences have the chance to experience the innovative China National Grand Theater, which is running test performances until October 13, Beijing Youth Daily reported. The theater's egg-shaped design is the work of French architect Paul Andreu. Situated west of Tian'anmen Square, an 80 meter underground gallery leads to a huge lobby and then to the 2,398 seat Opera House, and a concert hall seating 2,019. A series of shows staged from September 25 to October 13 to test the equipment, includes Teahouse by Beijing People's Art Theater, Swan Lake by the National Ballet of China.

Designs on the dragon

The search is on for designers to create a dragon worthy of adorning the Olympic Green forest park. Plans are afoot for the sculpture of a dragon, a symbolic creature in Chinese history said to express the ideas of unity, balance, strength and courage. Organized by The Chinese Cultural Link Project Committee, under the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, a global bid has been launched to find designers for the sculpture.
Send designs to libr@bjhuajia.com.cn by December 31.

Click art

Art Cool - an online art village - threw open its virtual doors this month. The brainchild of Beijing Guardian Online Auctions Company on September 17, the Chinese website introduces young Chinese artists' works in an online exhibition column, and provides an open forum for free discussion between professional and amateur art critics. It also has an event listings page with latest details on happenings in local art spheres. Www.artcool.com has its own circle of artists, and serves as a channel between artists and the market.

Piece of Games history
Games collectors can now own their own piece of Beijing's famed National Stadium, with BOCOG's recent release of models of the Bird's Nest made of steel left over from construction of the venue.
The models are now on sale at the flagship Olympic franchised store in Gongmei Emporium, Beijing Daily reported. This limited series of models outlines the detailed structures of the Olympic centerpiece venue, plus surrounding landscape, track and field. Priced from 900-4,000 yuan , with small, medium and large sizes available.
Butts out
Beijing government will ban smoking in cabs from October 1 to back up its plan for a smoke-free Olympic Games, Beijing Times reported. According to Beijing Municipal Health Bureau, neither taxi drivers nor passengers may smoke. Both face fines for breaching the rules, though penalties are yet to be announced. A set of regulations extends the smoking ban to Olympic venues, athletes' accommodation areas, and vehicles assigned to serve the event. Sales of cigarettes would also be banned at all venues, and training and accommodation areas.
Lantern festival
At Longtan Lake Park, Chongwen District, lanterns of all shapes and sizes will light the way for those boating on the lake. Besides the display, the festival atmosphere is heightened with a concert, folk performances and a lantern riddle competition. It is the largest lantern show in Beijing, featuring 45 groups of lanterns. Entry 2 yuan before 4pm; 10 yuan from 4pm to 10pm. Until December 7.
Bus Nos 6, 60, 807, 812 or 116

秦始皇

秦始皇是中国历史上的一代雄主，生于公元前259年，死于公元前210年，在中国数千年的历史上占有显著而醒目的一页，给后世留下了深远的影响。

秦始皇出生在东周末年。当时东周已经开始衰败，有7个比较强大的诸侯国，他们之间发生了历时几百年的“以强凌弱，以众暴寡”的征战，历史上称之为“战国七雄”。在当时的分裂割据局面中，秦孝公任用商鞅实行变法后，秦国取得了很大的成功。到战国末年（秦始皇诞生）时，秦国在政治、军事、经济诸方面都已具备了统一六国的基本条件。公元前238年，秦始皇亲政后，选拔了许多得力武将，对其它六个国施展远交近攻，分化离间，各个击破的策略，于公元前221年灭掉了最后一个国家，建立了中国历史上第一个中央集权的统一王朝，即秦王朝，自号秦始皇。

秦始皇统一中国后，立即进行了一系列改革。在政治方面废除了商周以来的分封制，推行郡县制，宣布郡官职位不能继承，国家大事由皇帝亲自主持，重要官吏由皇帝直接任免；郡官定期调动位置，以防他们建立势力范围；修建驰道、直道，连通首都与各郡。秦始皇所确立的这一整套中央集权的封建专制主义政体，具有划时代的意义。
此外，秦始皇还推行了许多维护国家统一的政策和措施。他统一法律，统一度量衡，统一货币，统一文字，这些政策和措施对推动中国封建社会的经济发展、文化融合和文明发展都起了巨大作用。

秦始皇时期，改革后的小篆文字及隶书文字开始兴起，并完成了古文字向今文字的转变。以后虽改朝换代，各地语言不同，发音各异，但统一的文字却把整个中华民族始终联系在一起。他所改制的方孔圆钱形制在中国货币史上沿用了两千年之久。
这位皇帝在公元前213年，为了推行新王朝制度，采纳了法家学派代表人物李斯的建议，下令焚烧除工、兵、农书、法书、医书和秦朝史籍之外的各国史书和其它书籍，使全国各地纷纷燃起了烧书的烈火。焚书的第二年，秦始皇为了进一步打击异端思想，借故将在咸阳的460余名读书人活埋，将其余的人全部流放到边远山区。这就是历史上有名的“焚书坑儒”事件。“焚书坑儒”不仅将中华民族千余年文化发展的结晶付之一矩，更严重的恶果是扼杀了学术探讨的自由，中断了春秋以来百家争鸣、思想活跃的局面，而且从此开了中国历代王朝大兴“文字狱”的先河。
在对外政策上，秦始皇开展对南方和中国所属其它地区的大规模征战。在南方征服了“百越”，在北方沉重打击了“匈奴”。为了阻止“匈奴”对北方边境的骚扰，秦始皇调拔大批人力物力，在燕、赵、秦原修筑长城的基础上，重新修补，新筑，把北方长城连接在一起，形成了一道巨大高墙，这就是代表中国悠久历史见证的举世闻名的万里长城。
秦始皇为了求得长生不死药，不惜数次花费巨万钱财，还将3000童男童女送去葬身海底，尸喂鱼鳖；为修自己一座陵墓，发70万刑徒，终年累月地去营造；修阿房宫、筑长城、击匈奴、戍边塞……这些都加重了人民的赋税负担。人民在横征暴敛，苛捐重税和无休止的徭役下已无法生活下去。剌杀秦始皇的事多次发生，但都未成功。公元前210年，秦始皇病死。公元前209年，农民陈胜、吴广带领广大不堪忍受剥削的农民起义，天下云集响应，秦王朝很快就崩溃灭亡了。
秦始皇既是中国历史长河转折点上的伟人，又是后人眼中的暴君。

秦始皇

秦始皇

秦始皇是中国历史上的一代雄主，生于公元前259年，死于公元前210年，在中国数千年的历史上占有显著而醒目的一页，给后世留下了深远的影响。

秦始皇出生在东周末年。当时东周已经开始衰败，有7个比较强大的诸侯国，他们之间发生了历时几百年的“以强凌弱，以众暴寡”的征战，历史上称之为“战国七雄”。在当时的分裂割据局面中，秦孝公任用商鞅实行变法后，秦国取得了很大的成功。到战国末年（秦始皇诞生）时，秦国在政治、军事、经济诸方面都已具备了统一六国的基本条件。公元前238年，秦始皇亲政后，选拔了许多得力武将，对其它六个国施展远交近攻，分化离间，各个击破的策略，于公元前221年灭掉了最后一个国家，建立了中国历史上第一个中央集权的统一王朝，即秦王朝，自号秦始皇。

秦始皇统一中国后，立即进行了一系列改革。在政治方面废除了商周以来的分封制，推行郡县制，宣布郡官职位不能继承，国家大事由皇帝亲自主持，重要官吏由皇帝直接任免；郡官定期调动位置，以防他们建立势力范围；修建驰道、直道，连通首都与各郡。秦始皇所确立的这一整套中央集权的封建专制主义政体，具有划时代的意义。

此外，秦始皇还推行了许多维护国家统一的政策和措施。他统一法律，统一度量衡，统一货币，统一文字，这些政策和措施对推动中国封建社会的经济发展、文化融合和文明发展都起了巨大作用。

秦始皇时期，改革后的小篆文字及隶书文字开始兴起，并完成了古文字向今文字的转变。以后虽改朝换代，各地语言不同，发音各异，但统一的文字却把整个中华民族始终联系在一起。他所改制的方孔圆钱形制在中国货币史上沿用了两千年之久。

这位皇帝在公元前213年，为了推行新王朝制度，采纳了法家学派代表人物李斯的建议，下令焚烧除工、兵、农书、法书、医书和秦朝史籍之外的各国史书和其它书籍，使全国各地纷纷燃起了烧书的烈火。焚书的第二年，秦始皇为了进一步打击异端思想，借故将在咸阳的460余名读书人活埋，将其余的人全部流放到边远山区。这就是历史上有名的“焚书坑儒”事件。“焚书坑儒”不仅将中华民族千余年文化发展的结晶付之一矩，更严重的恶果是扼杀了学术探讨的自由，中断了春秋以来百家争鸣、思想活跃的局面，而且从此开了中国历代王朝大兴“文字狱”的先河。
在对外政策上，秦始皇开展对南方和中国所属其它地区的大规模征战。在南方征服了“百越”，在北方沉重打击了“匈奴”。为了阻止“匈奴”对北方边境的骚扰，秦始皇调拔大批人力物力，在燕、赵、秦原修筑长城的基础上，重新修补，新筑，把北方长城连接在一起，形成了一道巨大高墙，这就是代表中国悠久历史见证的举世闻名的万里长城。

秦始皇为了求得长生不死药，不惜数次花费巨万钱财，还将3000童男童女送去葬身海底，尸喂鱼鳖；为修自己一座陵墓，发70万刑徒，终年累月地去营造；修阿房宫、筑长城、击匈奴、戍边塞……这些都加重了人民的赋税负担。人民在横征暴敛，苛捐重税和无休止的徭役下已无法生活下去。剌杀秦始皇的事多次发生，但都未成功。公元前210年，秦始皇病死。公元前209年，农民陈胜、吴广带领广大不堪忍受剥削的农民起义，天下云集响应，秦王朝很快就崩溃灭亡了。
秦始皇既是中国历史长河转折点上的伟人，又是后人眼中的暴君。

黄色与皇帝

黄色与皇帝

中国古代崇尚黄色，黄色常常被看作君权的象征。这首先起源于古代农业民族的“敬土”思想。按中国的阴阳学说，黄色在五行中为土，这种土是在宇宙中央的“中央土”，放在五行当中，“土为尊”。此后这种思想又与儒家大一统思想揉合在一起，认为以汉族为主体的统一王朝就是这样一个处于“中央土”的帝国，而有别于周边的“四夷”，这样“黄色”通过土就与“正统”、“尊崇”联系起来，为君主的统治提供了“合理性”的论证。再加上古代又有“龙战于野，其血玄黄”的说法，意思是说：龙在打仗的时候，流的血是黄色的，而君主又以龙为象征，黄色与君主就发生了更为直接的联系。这样，黄色就象征着君权神授，神圣不可侵犯。周代以黄钺为天子权力象征，隋代以后皇帝要穿黄龙袍，黄色成为君主独占的颜色。

“皇帝”一词的来历

中国古代最早所称的“皇帝”是对“三皇五帝”的统称。三皇指天皇、地皇和人皇，是传说中的三个古代帝王；“帝”原来指宇宙万物至高无上的主宰者——天帝，后来许多国家混战，各自称帝，出现西帝、东帝、中帝、北帝等，使天上的“帝”来到人间，成为超越“王”的人间尊号。（也有说是部落时期的黄帝、炎帝、蚩尤等）。
秦始皇统一全国后，自认为是“德兼三皇，功高五帝”，将“皇”、“帝”两个人间最高的称呼结合起来，为自己的帝号，从此天子称为皇帝。

The Spring Festival 中国春节

The Spring Festival 春节

The Spring Festival is the most important festival for the Chinese people and is when all family members get together, just like Christmas in the West.

The Spring Festival falls on the 1st day of the 1st lunar month. It is a national carnival to welcome the spring after a long and gloomy winter, and to celebrate the past year's harvest with good food, festivities,dragon dancing and firecrackers.

Many customs accompany the Spring Festival. Some are still followed today, but others have weakened. On the 8th day of the 12th lunar month, many families make laba porridge, a delicious kind of porridge made with glutinous rice, millet, seeds of Job's tears, jujube berries, lotus seeds, beans, longan and gingko. People attach great importance to Spring Festival Eve. At that time, all family members eat dinner together.The meal is more luxurious than usual. Dishes such as chicken, fish and bean curd cannot be excluded, for in Chinese, their pronunciations, respectively "ji", "yu" and "doufu," mean auspiciousness, abundance and richness.