Chinese Tea, More Important than Rice

People throughout China drink tea daily. Tea is to the Chinese as wine is to the French, as beer is to the Germans, as cigars are to the Cubans.

Chinese Tea, More Important than Rice


People throughout China drink tea daily. Tea is to the Chinese as wine is to the French, as beer is to the Germans, as cigars are to the Cubans.

History
It is true that the word for tea, cha, never appeared in ancient Chinese texts; the character cha was created by Lu Yu in the 8th century during the Tang dynasty (618-907 A.D.). Based on written records and more recently excavated archaeological evidence, we know that tea as a beverage had become rather popular in Central China along the Yangzi River and its tributaries during the Western Han period (206 B.C.-24 A.D.) at the latest.
Chinese drink tea at meals and serve it to friends when they come for a visit. "On such occasions, it is served continually as long as they remain together engaged in conversation," wrote Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), an Italian Christian missionary who stayed in China for 28 years, in "China in the Sixteen Century: The Journals of Matthew Ricci: 1583－1610." "This beverage is sipped rather than drunk and it is always taken hot," Ricci wrote. He also remarked that the bitter taste of tea was not unpleasant and was good for one's health.
Category
Because of the geographic location and climate, different places grow various kinds of tea. In general, there are five kinds of tea classified according to different techniques involved in the brewing process.


Green tea
Green tea keeps the original color of the tealeaves without fermentation during processing. Top brands include Longjing in Zhejiang Province, Maofeng of Huangshan Mountain in Anhui Province, and Biluochun in Jiangsu Province.
Black tea
Black tea, known as "Red Tea" (hong cha) in China, is fermented before baking. The best brands are Qihong in Anhui, Dianhong in Yunnan, Suhong in Jiangsu, Chuanhong in Sichuan and Huhong in Hunan.
Wulong tea
This represents a variety half way between the green and the black teas, and it is made after partial fermentation. Wulong tea abounds in Fujian, Guangdong, and Taiwan along China's southeast coast.
Compressed tea
It is compressed and hardened into a certain shape. It is easy to transport and store and is mainly supplied to the ethnic minorities living in the border areas of the country. Most of the compressed tea is in the form of bricks, thus the name "brick tea." Sometimes it is cake or bowl-shaped. It is mainly produced in Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces.
Scented tea
It is made by mixing fragrant flowers in the tealeaves in the course of processing. The flowers commonly used for this purpose are jasmine and magnolia among others. Jasmine tea is a well-known favorite among the northerners in China.Tea artistry
Tea is far more than a thirst quencher in China. Many people appreciate the art form of brewing and drinking tea. The tea culture involved is relaxing, allowing people to supposedly forget all their troubles during the process of brewing, serving and drinking tea.
Making a good pot of tea is not so easy. With tea of the same quality, one can produce different tastes by using different water, tea sets and brewing techniques. Tea of top quality should be brewed with top-grade water. Teaware embellished with artistic designs are needed to complement the elegance of tealeaves. Brewing time, water temperature, and the ratio of water to tealeaves depends on tea quality and category.

Tips for brewing tea
1. Know the various qualities of different tea
Before making a pot of tea, one should first know the characteristics of the tea. Thus, one can choose the most appropriate brewing technique suitable to a specific tea to bring out its best quality. Tea quality is affected by various factors, such as weather, the land and the grower.
2. Control the amount
How much tea should be put into the pot depends on the specialty of each kind of tea as well as the brewer's habits. Generally speaking, the standard amount (the amount used by the professional tea brewer when brewing a pot of tea) is 3 grams of tea brewed with 150 cubic centimeters of water for 5 minutes.
The ratio of water to tealeaf depends on the quality of tea and the drinking method. Generally speaking, famous tea or top-grade tea requires a ratio of 50:1, and ordinary black, green, white and scented tea 75:1. The ratio of water to Oolong is 25:1.
3. Choose appropriate tea sets and water
When brewing tea, one should pay attention not only to the tealeaf's shape, color, scent and taste but also to the teapot's quality and artistic design to set off the elegant tealeaf. Generally, a big teapot is chosen when one wants to satisfy thirst while a small pot is used when one desires to taste and appreciate the tea.
Tea of top quality should be brewed with top-grade water to bring out its best. Longjing Tea (Dragon Well Tea) and Hupao Spring (Tiger Spring) are known as the two superb products of Hangzhou City. Even though the tea-brewing water deserves careful study, one should bear in mind the actual condition when making tea. Water, which reaches drinking standards and will bring out the best of tea, can be chosen to make tea. If conditions allow, one can use natural spring water or lake water or river water, which is a better choice for sure.
4. Control the water temperature
Generally, people use boiled water to brew old tealeaves, while cooling down the boiled water a little bit to brew tender tealeaves. For example, top-grade green tea and some famous kinds of tea, which should be picked when they are tender, cannot be brewed with boiling water. So one should wait until the water temperature cools down to about 80 degrees Celsius. In this way, the tea will have clear water, a pure scent, fresh taste and brightly-colored leaves.
5. Control the brewing time
Generally, brewing time should be short for those tender and strongly-scented tealeaves of a large amount, while a long brewing time is required for coarse and strong-tasting tealeaves of a small amount. For those who like drinking strong tea, its better to brew the tea for a longer time; for those who prefer a weaker taste, its better to shorten the time.

Chinese Modesty

Modesty is one of the traditional virtures the great sage Confucius advocated. Although a great scholar, Confucius admonished his students, “When walking in the company of three, there must be one I can learn from”. To Confucius modesty and humility are required qualities for a society to sustain itself while pride will lead to destruction.

The typical example of the modesty is demonstrated by the host to his visitors. He will apologize for the ill-preparation and small quantity of his food, which turns out to be sumptuous banquet. And the modesty is also shown when the Chinese accept compliments. They always respond to compliments with “Nali, nail.(literally where? Where?)” – figuratively meaning, “I have done nothing to deserve your compliment.”


Another common way to show the Chinese modesty is that the Chinese often politely refuse offers of drinks, refreshments, gifts and other favors two or three times before graciously accepting them. Their modesty requires them not to open the gifts before the sender.



Their modesty requires them not to challenge but to respect, which results in a low profile of Chinese. This is sometimes misunderstood as no ambition or competitive spirit. Their modesty leads them more to group-consciousness rather than to individual-consciousness.

Cultural Relics Prohibited from Being Exhibited Overseas

Zhu Ke Copper Ding

Time: Warring States Period (475 -221BC)
Specification: 113 centimeters high; 87 centimeters in caliber
Excavation: Changfeng County, Anhui Province, in 1933
Collection place: Anhui Provincial Museum

Cultural Relics Prohibited from Being Exhibited Overseas

A Pair of "Lotus and Crane Copper Pots"

Time: Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC-476 AD)
Specification: 126 centimeters high; 30.5 centimeters in caliber; 24.9 centimeters wide.
Excavation: Xinzheng, Henan Province, in 1923
Collection place: One is in the Beijing-based National Palace Museum and another belongs to Henan Provincial Museum.
It was a water or wine container created in the Spring and Autumn period. The main part of the pot was designed as square which became very popular in the late Western Zhou Dynasty. The pot has its own ears, feet, and varied figures, which not only revealed a unique design style but also, represented the changing concept of beauty.

Emperor Xuantong 中国皇帝 宣统

Emperor Xuantong, named Pu Yi, was the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). He was born in 32nd year of Emperor Guangxu's reign (1906 AD), died in 1967. During that period, the Qing Dynasty was in trouble. China had come to be dominated by foreign powers, mainly Westerners. The country was ruled by Dowager Empress Cixi, who had imprisoned the nominal emperor, Guangxu, for conspiring against her. On her deathbed the empress named little Pu Yi -- the son of the imprisoned emperor's brother -- to succeed her. To make sure Guangxu didn't interfere in her plans, it is said, she had him poisoned. Pu Yi was nearly three years old when the dowager empress died. As emperor he was given the reign name Xuantong.
Pu Yi's father who disliked politics served as his son's regent. There was great resentment in China against foreigners and the Manchu government, and in 1911 rebellion swept the country, forcing the regent to resign. Chinese general Yuan Shih-k'ai took over the government. He hoped to start his own ruling dynasty and suggested that Pu Yi should abdicate. Fearing the consequences if they refused, the Manchu Grand Council agreed, and on February 12, 1912, the five-year old emperor renounced his throne. He continued to live in the Forbidden City and was treated with enormous respect.

In 1917, when Pu Yi was 9, a warlord named Zhang Xun decided to restore him to the throne, with army surrounding Peking. Pu Yi released a decree stating that he was the emperor once again. Six days after Pu Yi's restoration a plane dropped three bombs on the Forbidden City. It was the first air raid in Chinese history. Pu Yi's supporters abandoned him, and once again he lost his throne. He remained in the Forbidden City, and his life went on much as it had before.
Pu Yi received an uneven education. He studied classics, history and poetry, but learned no math, geography or science. His lessons were in Chinese and Manchu. At age 13 he started studying English. The Manchus still hoped to restore Pu Yi to his throne, and they wanted him to have contact with Western powers that might be able to help them achieve the goal. So they asked a senior official Reginald Johnston of the British Colonial Office to become Pu Yi's English tutor. Pu Yi was heavily influenced by Johnston and developed a fascination for Western things. With Johnston's help, Pu Yi picked an English name for himself Henry -- a name of the British kings, which is why you can find the last emperor of China listed in encyclopedias as Henry Pu Yi. In addition, it was Johnston who first noticed that Pu Yi needed glasses.

When Pu Yi was 16 his advisors decided that it was time for him to marry. He picked out a very beautiful girl of his own age named Wan Rong as his empress and Wen Xiu as his consort. On the night of his wedding to Wan Rong, Pu Yi panicked and fled from their bedroom; it's part of the possible reason that he never consummated his marriages.

In 1924 the army of another warlord, Feng Yuxiang, surrounded the Forbidden City. Pu Yi was forced to leave the Forbidden City for the first time since becoming emperor. He took with him his imperial seal and a suitcase filled with precious stones.

Soon Reginald Johnston helped him escape to the Japanese legation. Later Pu Yi and his wives moved to Tianjin, on the coast of China, where the Japanese had a lot of power. Pu Yi rented a mansion called Chang Garden and set up his court there. He remained there for years, plotting to regain his throne. Pu Yi and his wife Wan Rong had busy social lives in Tianjin, but their private relationship was very cold. No longer bearing Pu Yi's cold attitude, Wen Xiu eventually demanded a divorce. Divorce was unprecedented in the history of the imperial family, but Pu Yi didn't want a public scandal, so he agreed. Wen Xiu returned to Peking. She lived until 1950, and never remarried.

In 1931 the Japanese army invaded Manchuria. Pu Yi accepted the Japanese army's offer to smuggle him into Manchuria. Wan Rong joined him there later, but she and Pu Yi spent little time together. She had an affair with a guard and Pu Yi punished her by confining her to her rooms. Eventually the empress became an opium addict. She deteriorated mentally and physically.

The Japanese set up a new country in Manchuria called Manchukuo. They made Pu Yi the Chief Executive. It was 1934 when the Japanese agreed to make Pu Yi the Emperor of Manchukuo. The Japanese provided him with a palace and money, and also made all the decisions for him. The emperor was a puppet with very little say even over his personal life. The Japanese pressured him to marry Japanese women, which, of course, would put Japanese spies inside Pu Yi's family. Pu Yi resisted by taking a new Manchu consort named Tan Yuling.

Six years after her marriage to Pu Yi, Tan Yuling died. Pu Yi believed that the Japanese had poisoned her. Once again he was asked to take a Japanese wife. Finally he agreed to marry a Manchurian girl from a Japanese-run school. Once more he was given photographs and told to choose a bride. He picked a 15-year old, thinking that she might be less indoctrinated by the Japanese than an older girl. Her name was Li Yuqin.

At the end of the war Soviet forces took Manchuria. Again Pu Yi fled his palace with only a suitcase of jewels and an imperial seal. He retreated to a small town with his family and entourage. When he learned of Japan's surrender he abdicated the throne of Manchukuo.
He left his wives behind, and never saw Wanrong again. The beautiful drug-addicted empress died in a Chinese prison at the age of 40. Li Yuqin eventually went to work in a library in her hometown of Changchun. In 1958 she divorced Pu Yi and remarried. She died in Changchun in 2001 of cirrhosis of the liver.

Pu Yi and his attendants were taken to the USSR and kept under house arrest. At last, in 1950, Pu Yi returned to China, where he was sent at once to a prison camp. He remained there for nine years. He slept in a cell with other prisoners, made his own bed, and did menial labor.
In December of 1959 Pu Yi, in his 50s, was finally released. He went to live with his family in his father's house in Peking. Pu Yi was assigned to work in the gardens of the Academy of Sciences Institute of Botany. Later he wrote his autobiography From Emperor to Citizen. In 1962 Pu Yi married Li Shuxian, who had been a nurse in a hospital where Pu Yi was treated during his imprisonment. Pu Yi died in 1967. And Li Shuxian died of lung cancer in 1997 at the age of 72.

Emperor Qianlong 中国皇帝 乾隆

Emperor Qianlong is Emperor Yongzheng's fourth son. He was born in the 50th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign (1711), and died in the 4th year of Emperor Jiaqing's reign at the age of 89. He was the sixth Emperor of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) and also the emperor who lived for the longest time in Chinese history.

Qianlong showed his talent when in his childhood. Because of this, his grandfather Emperor Kangxi liked him a lot. After setting up the rule of choosing successor secretly, Emperor Yongzheng chose Qianlong to succeed the throne without hesitation.

Qianlong was 25 years old when he succeeded the throne. He learnt his grandfather's and his father's ways of running the state affairs. And he skillfully dealt with the relationship between Manchu, Han and other ethnic minorities to consolidated imperial power. His reign was the most prosperous period of Qing Dynasty.

Qianlong was a keen poet, writer and calligrapher: he produced three collections of essays and five albums of poetry, making him one of the most prolific poets and calligraphers in ancient China. He was highly accomplished in painting and was fond of collecting cultural antiques -- there were many examples of jade carving, tooth carving, bamboo and wood carving, lacquer art, enamel and porcelain art in his imperial study. He also sponsored the compilation of Si Ku Quan Shu (Complete Collection in Four Treasuries), which is regarded as the largest series in Chinese history and a valuable treasure representing Chinese culture. He was familiar with military strategies and invented Shi Quan Wu Gong (perfect gongfu). He was fond of hunting and traveling, and traveled to Southern China six times for inspection. Almost every autumn, he would visit Wutai Mountain in the west and Confucius's Temple in the south.

Qianlong promised that he would abdicate after ruling as an emperor for 60 years, because that his grandfather Emperor Kangxi's reign lasted for 61 years, and Qianlong did not want to exceed his grandfather. In 60th year of his reign, he carried out his promise, and his son Yuyan (Emperor Jiaqing) became the new emperor. Actually, Qianlong was still running the country. A lot of important affairs was reported to and solved by him.

Qianlong took great pride in his administrative style which ushered in a period of great prosperity in the country. Emperor Qianlong's reign marked the peak of feudalism in China and, together with the reign of Emperor Kangxi, this period is known as Kang Qian Sheng Shi (the Great Prosperity of Emperor Kangxi and Qianlong). Unfortunately, however, in his old age he appointed corrupt officials such as Huo Shen, and problems of extortion and poor administration contributed directly to the decline of the Qing Dynasty.

Emperor Yongzheng 中国皇帝 雍正

Yongzheng, titled Qing Shizong, was the 4th son of emperorKangxi. Because Kangxi had many sons, the rivalry between each was very fierce. Yongzheng had to fight hard, and after the crown prince's failure to do his duties, Yongzheng had a chance to become the crown prince. But because of strong rivalry, this decision was never made.

When emperor Kangxi was at his death bed, he called Yongzheng over. It was rumored that he poisoned the old emperor, and added a stroke to the proclamation of emperor, that made the statement "…pass the throne to 14th son" to "pass the throne to 4th son". This rumor of course could never be proved.

After ascending the throne, he carried out a series of new policies that much benefited the development of the Qing dynasty. Just to name a few: he established the "Junji Chu" (Cabinet of Military) and weakened the power of the princes to strengthen the central power; he improved the tax law by demanding taxes according to the number of acres of land; by dispatching ministers to the minority areas, he strengthened the control overthem.

Yongzheng set up the rule of choosing successor secretly. The rule was: the emperor wrote his successor's name on two pieces of paper, then put one piece of paper in a box and had the box stored behind the stele in the Qianqing Palace. The emperor had the other identical copy with him or hidden somewhere. Upon the emperor's passing, the ministers would take out the paper in the box and compare it with the copy with the emperor. If they were deemed identical, the person whose name was on the paper would be the new emperor. Since that, there was no contention for imperial throne. Yongzheng was in power for only 13 years but he layed the foundation to the prosperous rein of Qianlong. Without Yongzheng's efforts, Qianlong could not become the emperor he was.

However, his rein was full of turbulence as the other princes were always trying to dethrone him. One time, in alliance with the Eight Kings, the 7th, 8th and 9th son of Kangxi almost dethroned Yongzheng, if it were not for the 13th prince who came to help out. But because of this event, the 13th prince died and Yongzheng lost the only brother that was close to him. Because this plot also involved his first son, Yongzheng, who did not want Qian Long to share the same tragedy as he, sent orders for the first son to commit suicide. This way, when Qian Long ascended the throne, he had no rivals.

Although Yongzheng achieved so much, because of his revival of the Wenzi Yu (suppressing of scholars and burning of books) and his cruelty, he had many bad names that survived till today. In August 1735, Yongzheng died in the Summer Palace and then was buried in the Tai Mausoleum in today's Hebei Province.

Emperor Kangxi 中国皇帝 康熙

Emperor Kangxi, named Xuanye, was the fourth emperor of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) and the third son of Emperor Shunzhi. He was born on May 4, 1654 and died in 61st year of his reign (1722), Kangxi succeeded imperial throne at the age of 8 on February 17, 1661, twelve days after his father's death. He ruled during the years from 1661 to 1722 -- the longest reign on the throne in China's history, 61 years.
When he was still a child, Kangxi was quite hard-working and showed great talent in literature. Because he was too young, his father appointed four ministers to help him to administrate the country, one of whom, named Ao Bai, secretly fostered his own henchmen against the young emperor. When Kangxi was old enough to rule the nation, he cleverly smashed Ao Bai's plot.
In the course of his five tours to South China (in the years 1684, 1689, 1699, 1703, and 1707) he made painstaking efforts to inspect conservancy projects and so spurred the officials in charge to be more efficient and conscientious. He frequently singled out those who were reported as incorrupt for promotion .
Desirous of lessening the opposition of recalcitrant Chinese scholars to the new regime, he solicited their help in the compilation of Ming-shi . In order to obtain capable scholars for this project he summoned many to complete in a special examination. He selected learned men and good calligraphers to be his personal secretaries, their office being known as the Imperial Study. Many famous works on literature and art were compiled under his order.
During Kangxi's reign, the society accumulated huge wealth and most of the time enjoyed peace and prosperity. In Chinese history, the good ruling from Emperor Kangxi's reign to Emperor Qianlong's reign was called "Kang Qian Sheng Shi", with prosperity lasting more than 100 years, and this was the last most prosperous period in ancient China.

Emperor Kangxi, named Xuanye, was the fourth emperor of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) and the third son of Emperor Shunzhi. He was born on May 4, 1654 and died in 61st year of his reign (1722), Kangxi succeeded imperial throne at the age of 8 on February 17, 1661, twelve days after his father's death. He ruled during the years from 1661 to 1722 -- the longest reign on the throne in China's history, 61 years.

When he was still a child, Kangxi was quite hard-working and showed great talent in literature. Because he was too young, his father appointed four ministers to help him to administrate the country, one of whom, named Ao Bai, secretly fostered his own henchmen against the young emperor. When Kangxi was old enough to rule the nation, he cleverly smashed Ao Bai's plot.
In the course of his five tours to South China (in the years 1684, 1689, 1699, 1703, and 1707) he made painstaking efforts to inspect conservancy projects and so spurred the officials in charge to be more efficient and conscientious. He frequently singled out those who were reported as incorrupt for promotion .

Desirous of lessening the opposition of recalcitrant Chinese scholars to the new regime, he solicited their help in the compilation of Ming-shi . In order to obtain capable scholars for this project he summoned many to complete in a special examination. He selected learned men and good calligraphers to be his personal secretaries, their office being known as the Imperial Study. Many famous works on literature and art were compiled under his order.

During Kangxi's reign, the society accumulated huge wealth and most of the time enjoyed peace and prosperity. In Chinese history, the good ruling from Emperor Kangxi's reign to Emperor Qianlong's reign was called "Kang Qian Sheng Shi", with prosperity lasting more than 100 years, and this was the last most prosperous period in ancient China.

Emperor Qin Shihuang 中国皇帝 秦始皇

Emperor Qin Shihuang (also called the First Emperor of China) was the founder of the first unified empire in the history of China. He established an autocratic state with centralized power over the feudal society.

in Shihuang, named Yingzheng, was born in Hanan in the late Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770-256BC). Legend has it that his father, prince of the Qin State, was held hostage in the State of Zhao until Lu Buwei, a wealthy merchant secured their release back to the Qin. Finding that his own wife, who was an exceedingly beautiful woman, was pregnant, Lu Buwei managed to inspire the prince with great love for her. With apparent reluctance Lu Buwei granted the prince's request of his wife, for Lu thought in due time his own offspring would have the acknowledged heir to the throne. When the prince became King Zhuang Xiang of Qin, he made Lu his prime minister, and for the next ten years Lu was the ruling force in the state.

When King Zhuang Xiang died, his son, or, rather, Lu Buwei's son, came to the throne. This boy of thirteen may be considered the real founder of the Qin Dynasty. His name was Yingzheng, better known as Qin Shihuang (246-221BC), and took over the reins of government at twenty-two.

When he grew up, he discovered that his mother had been guilty of the gravest immoralities with Lu Bubei, and that Lu revealed that he was his natural father. He at once banished his mother to a fortress and dismissed Lu Buwei from his office and sent him home to his estate, with a warning that any indiscretion of Lu Buwei would be severely punished. At last, being afraid of the king's vengeance Lu Buwei poisoned himself.

With assistance of wise and innovative men, Yingzheng carried out a series of reforms to develop agriculture and the military. Qin rose rapidly among the warring states at that period. During his reign, Yingzheng succeeded in putting down internal rebellions, and, externally, waged wars for unification on the other six states. It took him only ten years to wipe them out, thus putting an end to the state of chaos caused by rival principalities. When Qin defeated the other six states in 221BC, for the first time in history, China became a unified centralized state, Qin. Yingzheng assumed the title "Shihuangdi" as he considered his achievement surpassed those of "San Huang" (three previous emperors) and "Wu Di" (five previous emperors), legendary rulers in remote antiquity. "Shi" which means the first, combined with "Huangdi", the given names of his predecessors signifies his supremacy over them.

To organize his new empire, Qin Shihuang abolished the existing feudal system. He established prefectures and counties with further townships. These were put under the control of military and administrative officials who were his direct appointees. The state was divided into thirty-six prefectures with counties under their jurisdiction. Besides, roads radiating from Xianyang, the capital, were built linking the former Yan, Qi, Wu and Chu areas. He also standardized the script used for writing, the coinage, introducing a circular copper coin with a square hole in the center. Equally important reforms were the standardization of weights and measures, and codification of the law. These reforms benefited both the economy and cultural exchange during the period.
To strengthen the northern border, the Emperor sent slaves and criminals to build the line of defense now known as the Great Wall.

To silence criticism of imperial rule, in the 34th year (213BC) of the Qin Dynasty, Emperor Qin Shihuang decided to burn all the books in the empire and to execute those scholars and their families who opposed his rule. His command was remarkably efficient, and all historical records but those of the Qin State were burned. The second year, the emperor arrested approximately 460 Confucian scholars and buried them alive in Xianyang City, Shaanxi Province.

To reinforce his rule, Qin Shihuang practiced autocracy, imposing harsh laws and severe punishments and heavy levies and corves upon his people. Moreover, he levied war year after year and thus caused untold sufferings to the people.

Qin shihuang ruled by terror and spent massive amount of money to build extravagant palaces and his tomb. After five big travels across the country and the building of the Great Wall, China was in debt financially and people lived in terrible conditions. All this strengthened people's hatred towards the emperor and sped the fall of the Qin.

Qin shihuang believed in a medicine that could make him eternal. A group of doctors prescribed him a medicine that had a small dose of mercury in it. This mercury poisoned Qin shihuang and was what eventually killed him. He died while away from his capital on tour in 210BC. His demise sparked uprisings across the country. The second son Hu Hai of Qin Shihuang took over the throne. Hu Hai was even of inferior quality than his late father. He neglected his responsibilities as emperor and allowed the eunuch Zhao Gao to govern the country on his behalf.

In 206BC, the Qin Dynasty of Emperor II, 900 laborers were on a long march to Yuyang. It seemed impossible for them to get there in time, owing to a long spell of strong wind and heavy rain, which stopped them at Daxexiang. According to Qin's cruel rules, they would all be put to death. So Chen Shen and Wu Guang, of the 900 laborers, killed the officers, raised the standard of revolt, and led the first great peasant uprising in China's history. Very soon they captured the Ji County. People from every corner of the country came thick and fast to join Chen, as Emperor II was an unbearable tyrant. Chen won battle after battle, and later called himself Emperor of Zhang Chu. The Qin dynasty ended in 206BC.

Qin Shihuang, though on the throne for little more than a decade, had a tremendous influence on the Chinese civilization. He laid the foundation for a unified Chinese nation, and is called by posterity "An Emperor of Myriads of Ages". A reformer as well as tyrant, Qin Shihuang, left to posterity his immense and monumental Qin Mausoleum, a creation of both blood and tears.

Emperor Han Gaozu

The Qin Dynasty (221-206BC), the first to unify China under one ruler, collapsed amid peasant revolts, civil war and natural disasters in 210BC after the death of its First Emperor (Qin Shihuang). Many factions emerged and warred with each other incessantly, devastating large parts of China: one led by Chen Sheng and Wu Kuang, Xiang Liang and Xiang Yu of Chu regime from Jiang Dong, one led by Ying Bu from Po Yang, and one by Peng Yue from Yu Je. Liu Bang managed to round up three thousand volunteer uprising troops in his hometown Pei County of Jiangsu Province. Later, Xiang Yu and Liu Bang became the most prominent among the risers.
In following years, Cheng Sheng, Wu Guang and Xiang Liang successively died in the fight, and Xiang Yu took over the armies in the north. Liu Bang moved his forces north and aligned himself with the Chu forces.

In 206BC, Liu Bang was the first to enter the capital city of Xian Yang and ended the rein of the Qin Dynasty. Liu Bang abandoned the harsh Qin laws, reduced taxes, and instituted three regulations to protect the common people; this made Liu Bang very popular with the people.
But because of his lack of soldiers, Liu Bang could not fight against Xiang Yu and was forced to withdraw his forces to Ba Shang, left behind his father and wife who were captured by Xiang Yu. After Xiang Yu proclaimed himself Prince of Western Chu (Xi Chu Ba Wang) and entitled eighteen warlords of Chu, he named Liu Bang Prince of Han (Han Wang).

Liu Bang was twice almost killed by Xiang Yu, and was able to flee both times only because Xiang Yu had not taken his consultant Fan Zeng's advice. One occasion was at the Hongmen Feast after Liu Bang first entered Xian Yang. At the Hongmen Feast, a trap was planned after Liu Bang had been forced to go to the Chu camps to make an apology. Fan Zeng and Xiang Yu had decided to kill Liu Bang during this meeting, and Fan Zeng signaled Xiang Yu to take action three times, but Xiang did not respond. As a result, Liu Bang fled. After the banquet, Fan Zeng was furious, saying, "This mean fellow (Xiang Yu) is not worthy of my service. It should be Peigong (Liu Bang) that defeats Xiang Yu and conquers the country."

During the Xian Yang Battle, Liu Bang's troops were besieged and ran out of ammunition and provisions, and as a stratagem to gain a respite, Liu sued for peace, to which Xiang Yu agreed, but Fan Zeng opposed strongly. At this time, Chen Ping, who was helping Liu Bang, used the stratagem of sowing distrust between Fan Zeng and Xiang Yu. As a result, Xiang Yu became suspicious of Fan Zeng and discharged him from his post, and Liu Bang thus avoided another disaster. Fan Zeng, at age 73, knowing that he was unable to save the situation, bid Xiang Yu farewell and left for his hometown, but died of disease on the way. After Fan Zeng's death, Xiang Yu had no more capable men left on his side, and a year later, the Chu came to an end.
When Liu Bang entered Ba Shang, he ordered his men to burn the Jian path to show that he would not return to Xian Yang. In Han Zhong, Liu Bang focused his efforts on developing new agricultural methods for the people and trained his troops. He accumulated vast wealth and used it to increase his military power. Also, he had Zhang Liang, Han Xin, and Xiao He as his most trusted strategists, helping form a plan of attack of Xiang Yu.

Within a year, Han Xin conquered four new territories and surrounded the remaining Chu army. In the year 202BC, Liu Bang signed a treaty with Xiang Yu. They agreed that the west would belong to the Han, and the east belongs to Chu. With this agreement, Xiang Yu lead his troops back to his camp, but Liu Bang's army then trapped Xiang Yu at He Xia. Xiang Yu finally committed suicide at Wu Jiang, and thus ended the four-year war between Chu and Han.
At the same year, Liu Bang established the Western Han Dynasty with its capital at Chang'an (formerly Xian Yang). He was the first commoner to become emperor in Chinese history.
After establishing the Han Empire, Liu Bang's fight for power continued. He fought numerous small wars against former allies: Han Xin, Chen Xi, and Peng Yue, in order to consolidate power in west China.

Another power that threatened Liu Bang's supremacy was a confederation of northern tribes lead by a Turkish speaking tribe called Hun. The Hun people were nomadic herders with supplementary agriculture and slaves. The Hun warriors had been making raids into China for a few years. Liu Bang knew that his military was not strong enough to defeat the northern tribes, so he bribed the Huns with food and clothing in exchanged for a peace treaty. He also sent a young woman, who he claimed was a princess, into marriage with a Hun prince.

In an effort to create a centralised management for his empire, Liu Bang needed an army of civil servants. Moreover, for reliable control of the empire, Liu Bang installed his brothers, uncles, and cousins as regional princes.

Liu Bang continued to support the warlords that were in his coalition against the Qin, and made them lesser nobles. Local Qin administrators who supported Liu Bang were left in place, and some friendly nobles were given back their lands.

Liu Bang ruled for less than a decade, and his main contributions were to consolidate the dynasty. He ruled by Confucian principles, changing the old system of legalism. Because he was the first emperor of Han, he was known as the High Emperor of Han (Han Gaozu). He learned the lesson from the cruelty of Qin, and set laws that reduced slavery and encouraged production. The Han Dynasty lasted for 400 years, and Liu Bang was named Han Gaozu.

Emperor Han Wudi 中国皇帝 汉武帝

If we say that Qin Shihuang was the first emperor who unified China in terms of territory, then the first emperor who unified China in terms of ideology was none other than Han Wudi (Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty). In order to consolidate his rule, he proscribed all non-Confucian schools of thought and espoused Confucianism as the state ideology, thus pushing Confucius up into the orthodox position. For two thousand years thereafter, Confucianism had been the only one dominant school of thought in China.

Han Wudi, named Liuche, ascended the throne at the age of 15. He was the fifth emperor of the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD) and reigned from 141BC to 86BC, which is one of the most celebrated periods in Chinese history. During the period of Wen and Jing emperors before Han Wudi, China was peaceful and prosperous -- population grew greatly and industry and commerce were developed. Han Wudi, son of Emperor Jin, carried out a series of reforms and devoted himself to military conquests and territorial expansion.

Han Wudi's most important military campaigns were against the Hun, an ancient tribe that lived in North China who posed a powerful threat to the Han Empire. After three expeditions, Han Wudi finally drove the Hun into the far north of Gobi, thus maintaining the safety of the Hexi Corridor. In order to avoid the aggression of other nomadic tribes, Han Wudi also ordered the construction of the Great Wall.

In 138 BC, Han Wudi sent Zhang Qian -- Chinese ambassador-- with a diplomatic expedition to Central Asia to try to find allies against the Hun. Failing to achieve his original purpose, Chinese ruler became aware of the cultures and customs of other nationalities. Eventually, this led to the opening of the Silk Road, which later served as a route for cultural and economic exchange between the east and the west.

Han Wudi accepted Dong Zhongru's proposal of "rejecting the other schools of thought and respecting only Confucianism" which ended the period of "contention among one hundred schools of thought". Afterwards, Confucian thought became gradually an orthodox theory and had a far-reaching influence on Chinese philosophy. He also restrained other thoughts but made Confucianism a state ideology. While unifying the state ideology, Han Wudi strengthened the centralized state power and weakened local forces.

He realized the malpractice of eupatrid and established the Imperial College to train qualified officials and talents to strengthen feudal centralization. Han Wudi was not only a statesman but also of great talent. "Yuefu" -- an official conservatory was set up to collect folk songs and ballads and most of the folk songs in the Han Dynasty were come down from that period. Yuefu poems had a great influence on later periods.

In order to pay his military cost, Han Wudi raised taxes, nationalized many private businesses and confiscated property of the nobility. He also advocated statism in the fields of finance and commerce. For example, he announced that only the coins minted by the central government could be in circulation; metallurgy and salt processing were also forbidden among the people. Business run by the government enjoyed an exclusive right and the government imposed heavy property tax on industrialists and businessmen to enhance the income of the court. The Western Han Dynasty became unprecedented rich and powerful, centralization strengthened and its feudal economy flourished.

During the reign of Han Wudi, the Western Han Dynasty was in a period of great prosperity. Han Wudi died at the age of 71 in 86BC. The Western Han began to decline after his death. Wudi was buried in Maoling in Xian Yang of today's Shaanxi Province. His tomb was a subulate in shape. The tomb covers 54,054 square meters. On the remains of the bounding walls, the vestiges of watchtowers could be seen. The largest among the tombs of the Western Han Dynasty, with richest funeral objects, the tomb is named Pyramid in China.

Emperor Tang Gaozu 中国皇帝唐高宗

The Sui Dynasty (590-618) only had two emperors. At the end of the Sui, peasant uprisings rapidly swept throughout the country due to heavy taxation and extravagance of the emperor, which made the common people suffer a lot. Furthermore, the emperor tried three times to invade the northern part of Korea but never succeeded, rapidly worsening the situation.

Li Yuan was originally an aristocrat of the Sui Dynasty. In the year 617 he was dispatched to Tai Yuan by Sui Yangdi (the Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty), to battle the rebellion by the peasants there. Li Shimin, the second and also the most capable among all of Li Yuan's sons, had his own plans as he was sure that Sui would not last long. Li Shimin's friend Liu Wenjing suggested that he raise troops and rebel against the Sui Dynasty. Li Shimin thought that there was something in what he suggested and persuaded his father to do so.

Li Shimin, who, at the age of sixteen, already showed his outstanding military ability, suggested his father borrow military power from a formal enemy country of the Sui dynasty -- the Hun. Li Yuan consented to his suggestion and asked Liu Wenjing to help him to recruit soldiers and increase military power.

Before long, Li Yuan left Jin Yang and headed for Chang'an together with 30,000 soldiers. On the way there, they gave rice to peasants and won their heart, which was the routing practice by the rebellious armies. After they conquered the city of Huo Yi, they crossed the Yellow River and summoned up about 200,000 people with the help from the peasant rebels from Guan Zhong. They were all ready to attack Chang'an, the capital city.

Emperor Tang Taizong 中国皇帝 唐太宗

Tang Taizong (599-649), named Li Shimin, was the second son of Li Yuan, the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). At the end of the Sui Dynasty (590-618), peasant uprisings rapidly swept throughout the country due to heavy taxation, successive wars and extravagance of the emperor. In the year 617 Li Yuan was dispatched to Tai Yuan by Sui Yangdi (the Sui emperor), to battle the rebellion by the peasants there. Li Shimin, the most capable among all of Li Yuan's sons, had his own plans as he was sure that Sui would not last long. He persuaded his father to raise troops and rebel against the Sui Dynasty.

Li Shimin, who, at the age of sixteen, already showed his outstanding military ability, persuaded his father to borrow military power from a formal enemy country of the Sui Dynasty -- the Hun.
Before long, Li Yuan left Jin Yang and headed for Chang'an together with 30,000 soldiers. After the army taking Chang'an in a flash, Li Yuan made Yang You, son of Sui Yangdi, nothing but a temporary puppet emperor. When Sui Yangdi was assassinated by an aide in 618, Li Yuan deposed the puppet prince and declared himself emperor, and changed the name of the empire to the Tang Dynasty (618-907). The following years he was assisted by Li Shimin who continued to command the rebel armies and conquered all other rebellions, consolidating the kingdom.
On taking the title and name Emperor Gauzou, Li Yuan decreed that his eldest son, Li Jiancheng, should be the Crown Prince. Li Shimin, the second son, was granted the title Prince of Qin. A third son had died long before, so the fourth son, Li Yuanji was granted Prince of Qi.
Of these three sons, Li Shimin was the most ambitious and intelligent. It was he who had made the greatest contribution to the campaign to secure the empire for his father. This fact troubled the Crown Prince for he saw Li Shimin as a threat to his own position. Conspiring with his younger brother, Prince Qi, he tried to get rid of Li Shimin.

Unhappy with his father's incompetence and tired of the constant threats against him by his brothers, Li Shimin launched a palace coup at the Xuanwu Gate in 626. Both the Crown Prince and Prince Qi were killed. This was recorded as The Xuanwu Gate Coup. As a result, Li Yuan was then compelled to abdicate in favor of Li Shimin, and the latter ascended the throne as Emperor Taizong, whose reign was called Zhen Guan.

Having learned a lesson from the downfall of the Sui Dynasty, Taizong knew very well that unless the peasant classes were content, they could prove to be a very dangerous opposition under the leadership of anyone prepared to make a stand against the government. Taizong would remind himself of this frequently: the waters can both float and capsize a vessel.
Starting with political reconstruction of the state, he gave first priority to appointing people on their merits and seeking advice from able and worthy men, which became a major factor of his successful reign. He adopted and perfected the examination system that had been set up by the Sui. In this way men of talent, regardless of their class or background, had an opportunity to gain positions within the administration. Promotion of those who had achieved progress in office was decided. Possibly his most outstanding appointment was that of Wei Zheng, a former member of the Crown Prince's retinue. Wei Zheng had actually recommended the Crown Prince, brother of Li Shimin, to do away with Li Shimin only to be killed by the latter.

Tang Taizong worked out various systems and decrees favorable to the development of economy. He also advocated frugality, opposed corruption, and lightened the burden on the people. Policies adopted like: simplification of bureaucracy, strict control of expenses, elimination of corruption; inauguration of irrigation schemes, the enhancement of agricultural productivity, a fair system of taxation (Zu yong diao) coupled with the reintroduction of the land equalization system and reduction of corvee, and reformation of the penal code, eliminating the harsh laws of the Sui Dynasty.

Before long the Tang Empire presented a scene of general prosperity in which people lived and worked in such peace and contentment that no one would take any articles left by the wayside and doors were not bolted at night. This period was later referred to as "The Prosperity of Zhenguan".

After the domestic political and economic situation took favorable turn, Tang Taizong confidently started wars to unify border areas. He properly handled his relations with various nationalities by carrying out enlightened policies towards them, keeping their practices and customs unchanged, and appointing the former leaders there as local officials. Besides, he adopted the policy of cementing relations with rulers of minority nationalities in border areas by marrying daughters of the Han imperial family to them, which he did many times. For instance, he married Princess Wen Cheng to Songtsen Gammpo, leader of the Tubo, which is the ancestry of the Tibetan ethnic minority inhabited the Tibetan Plateau.

The unification and stability in border areas and the close relations among various nationalities helped promote economic and technical interchange between the Han nationality and ethnic minorities.

Furthermore, political, economic and cultural contacts between the Tang Empire and foreign countries became more and more frequent. Diplomatic envoys, merchants, scholars, artists, monks and priests from Asia, Europe and Africa came to visit the Tang Empire constantly. Tang Taizong set up special organizations and accommodations to receive them, and allowed them to stay over a long period of time and to marry Tang women. By means of exchange, a lot of strains of plants such as pepper, spinach, cardamom, tulip, etc. were brought to China in succession, and China's silk, porcelain, tea and paper were sold abroad in large quantities. It was also at this time that the paper-making technology, one of China's "Four Great Inventions", was introduced to foreign countries. Meanwhile, a large number of people of the Tang Empire visited other countries all over the world. It was from this time on that overseas Chinese began to be called "Tangren", i.e. Tang people.

Emperor Taizong ruled for twenty-three years and brought about the most prominent era of peace and prosperity in China's feudal society. For this, he is considered to be one of the most outstanding figures among China's feudal emperors. Under the management of Tang Taizong, the Tang Empire emerged as the most powerful feudal empire in the world.

Following his death in 649 at the age of fifty-three, he was buried in the Zhaoling Tomb located near today's Xi'an City in Shaanxi Province.

Emperor Wu Zetian 中国皇帝 武则天

Empress Wu Zetian (624-705) of the Tang Dynasty (618-907) was the only female monarch of China, and ruled the empire for over half a century. While her actions have been a subject for debate for more than ten centuries, Wu Zetian remains the most remarkable, influential and mysterious woman in Chinese history.

Wu Zetian was born in 624. Her parents were rich and of noble families. As a child she was taught to write, read the Chinese classics and to play music.

At the age of fourteen, this accomplished child became a concubine to Emperor Taizong. She was given the title Cairen (a fifth grade concubine of the Tang Dynasty). Her perspicacity set her apart from others in the palace and her knowledge of literature and history and talent quickly found favor with the emperor. He bestowed Wu Zetian the title Meiniang which means 'charming lady' and she was assigned to work in the imperial study. Here she was introduced to official documents and quickly became acquainted with affairs of state.

In 649, when she was twenty-six years old, the emperor died. He was succeeded by his son Gaozong and following the established court procedures, the old emperor's concubines were sent to a nunnery to live out their days. Emperor Gaozong was fascinated by Wu's talent and beauty and frequently visited her in the nunnery. After a period of some two to three years, she was summonsed to the palace and given the title Zhaoyi, the second grade concubine of the new emperor.

Wu gradually earned Gaozong's trust and favor. After giving birth to two sons, she began to compete with Empress Wang and the senior concubine Xiaoshu for the favor of the emperor. To achieve her goals, Wu Zetian horrifically killed off other favorite concubines of the emperor, and to get rid of the empress, she murdered her own infant daughter and blamed it on Empress Wang. Of all of these crimes, the emperor knew nothing off.

In 655, Gaozong promoted Wu to the position of Empress in place of the now disgraced Wang. Before long both the former empress and the concubine, Xiaoshu, were put to death due to Wu Zetian's scheme and Wu's position was finally secured. Then Wu Zetian began her political career in earnest for her goal was to become the first female-emperor of China.

Her resourcefulness and discernment meant that she was highly esteemed by her husband, the emperor. Wu recommended and had accepted new ideas regarding agriculture, tax reduction, social reforms and effective labor saving practices. Within five years of her marriage, Wu took an active part in state affairs and fostered her henchmen with zeal.

The emperor suffered a crippling stroke in 660 and Empress Wu Zetian took over the administration of the court. Showing no mercy toward anyone who failed to conform to her wishes, she would have them thrown into prison or executed. Her cruelty extended to members of her family as well as those high ranking officials who had contributed much to the founding of the dynasty.

Emperor Gaozong was disgusted by these actions but by now had become too feeble to make efforts to curb Wu Zetian. She would appear in court alongside the emperor whenever he held an audience. The pair became known as the Holy Sovereigns, and the emperor was merely a figurehead and ruled in name only.

Gaozong died in 683 and Wu's third son, Li Xian (656-710) ascended to the throne and was named Emperor Zhongzong. In the February of the following year, Wu deposed Zhongzong as he was proving difficult to control and replaced him with his younger brother, her fourth son, Li Dan (661-716). This latest emperor was known as Ruizong. All along, Wu was the puppet master and ruled the empire through her son, who had no option but to do what she told him. Finally, in 690 Wu Zetian usurped the throne and declared the empire was henceforth ruled by the Zhou Dynasty from her capital city Luoyang.

To achieve her ambitions she was as ruthless as was possible. She appointed sadistic and cruel officials to seek out and eliminate any opposition to her regime. Not only those who opposed Wu were severely dealt with, but also many other innocent people were cruelly put to death.
As Wu grew older, so her hold on state affairs began to lessen. She also realized that as a woman, she could only be respected after her death as a member of the Li family. She therefore allowed herself to be persuaded in 698 to reinstate Li Xian as Crown Prince. In the year 705 there was a palace coup and Wu was forced to resign. Her son Emperor Zhongzong thus restored the Tang Dynasty to power.

Aged 82, Wu Zetian died in the December 705. She was buried alongside Emperor Gaozong in the Qianling Tomb, located west of the present day Xi'an City.

So lived and died the only woman who ever ruled the Chinese empire in her own right. Opinion is sharply divided between those who admire her for her many achievements and those who regard her as a ruthless, merciless schemer and autocrat.

Achievements
1. In spite of her ruthless rise to power, Wu Zetian proved to be a very competent monarch and throughout her reign the legacy of prosperity was bequeathed.

2. Wu Zetian was eager to draw into her government all manner of talented people. She even encouraged people to volunteer their services should they consider themselves competent. The imperial examination system was further revised in order that no man of ability should be excluded due to his lowly birth. She also initiated the practice of personally interviewing candidates. In this way, many political talents were found and employed in the government. Such people included the famous prime minister, Di Renjie, Zhang Jianzhi, etc.

3. Wu Zetian attached great importance to the development of agriculture. She ordered the construction of irrigation schemes, and commissioned the compilation of farming textbooks. Local officials were evaluated by the task of cultivating land. As an incentive for increased production, taxes were reduced and corvee upon the peasant population was eased. By allowing peasant farmers to retain more of their produce, they were able to improve their lot and in general the population benefited from quite considerable prosperity.

Though Wu was a competent feudal monarch in terms of achievement she made, she was extremely ruthless murdering her relatives who tried to take advantage of her position. Those who opposed her in any way were quickly removed from office, exiled or forced to commit suicide including those founding fathers of the dynasty Zhangsun Wuji, Zhu Suiliang, Yu Zhining and Cheng Wuting and many others. Members of the Li royal family and their relatives were likewise eliminated. In addition, Wu favored Buddhism and ordered the construction of many Buddhist temples and sculptures nationwide, which added great pressure to the common people.

Emperor Tang Xuanzong

Tang Xuanzong, named Li longji, is also known as Tang Minghuang. Li longji, a man of competence, was the grandson of Empress Wu Zetian, the only female monarch in China's history. When he was young, Li Longji with his aunt Princess Taiping, daughter of Wu Zetian, started a coup and helped his father to ascend the throne, from whom he succeeded the throne. He was later named as Tang Xuanzong and changed the reign to Kai Yuan.

At the beginning of his rule, Tang Xuanzong's abilities in poetry, arts and martial arts were one of the best in the country. Because of his political talents and quick reaction, he managed to prevent Princess Taiping from usurping the throne, putting the princess together with her henchmen to death. Ever since then, Tang Xuanzong's kaiserdom was stabilized and the country entered a 40-year-odd prosperity, which is recorded as the the Prosperity of Kai Yuan Period.
Kai Yuan was the title of first 20 years of Xuanzong's reign. From the "Prosperity of Zhenguan" of Tang Taizong's reign to the end of Kai Yuan Period, the social economy saw the peak of prosperity after a hundred years' development. The capital, Chang'an, became the richest and most populous city in the world.

The Tang Empire presented a scene of general prosperity in which people lived and worked in such peace and contentment that no one would take any articles left by the wayside and doors were not bolted at night. Furthermore, political, economic and cultural contacts between the Tang Empire and foreign countries became more and more frequent. Diplomatic envoys, merchants, scholars, artists, monks and priests from Asia, Europe and Africa came to visit the Tang Empire constantly. Besides, the Tang army reoccupied lost territories from surrounding minority groups and resumed sovereignty over the Western Region.

However, the splendid appearance covered up the depravity. By the eighth century, during the later part of Tang Xuanzong's reign, the Tang Empire was in decline.

During the later years of his reign, the Tian Bao Period, Tang Xuanzong became more and more lordly and extravagant. He doted upon his Yang Guifei (Concubine Yang) and spent all his time in search of pleasure and neglected the court as well as politics. He foolishly appointed fraudulent and treacherous people such as Li Linfu and Yang Guozhong (Yang Guifei's cousin) as his ministers. This resulted in the political corruption, which became a potential crisis at his court. Ever since then, Tang Xuangzong Tang thus walked on its road to destruction.

During Xuanzong's later years, the government started to corrupt and the famous "The Treason of Anshi" occurred. In 755AD, An Lushan, taking advantage of Tang's corruption, rose against the government, in an attempt to take it down. The treacherous army soon sacked big cities Luo Yang and Chang'an. Tang Xuanzong escaped to Cheng Du. But the army wouldn't advance in the middle because Yang Guifei's cousin -- the prime minister -- had connections with the traitors. Because of the hatred the soldiers had towards Yang Guifei, even after the death of her brother, they still wouldn't advance. Xuanzong had no choice but to watch his favorite woman kill herself at the slopes of Mawei village.

After Tang Xuanzong escaped to Cheng Du, his son, the crown prince, succeeded the throne at Lin Wu and became Tang Suzong (Emperor Suzong). Tang Suzong ordered generals Guo Ziyi and Li Guangbi to counterattack the treacherous army. They successfully retrieved Chang'an and Luo Yang. In 763, the treacherous army was finally defeated for good, but this war lasted for 8 years and severely weakened the power of the government. The Tang Dynasty thus walked on a path of destruction.

Tang Xuanzong, however, never recovered from his loss of Yang Guifei, and died a broken man a few years later. He was buried in Tai Mausoleum.

Emperor Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan, or Yuan Taizu, was the first emperor of the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368). Born in today's Dadale County in Mongolia in 1162 and died in 1227, he was the son of the Kiyat-Borjigid chieftain Yisugei. He was named Tie Muzhen because, at the time of his birth, his father had captured a Tatar chieftain of the same name. According to records the newborn Tie Muzhen had a bloodclot in the palm of his right hand, an omen that he was destined to be a hero.

In 1170 when Tie Muzhen was still a boy, his father was poisoned by a group of Tatars, and the Kiyat tribe broke up and scattered, abandoning their chief's family and leaving Tie Muzhen's mother, Ho'elun, to raise her children alone. Accounts of Tie Muzhen glorify Tie Muzhen as intelligent, brave, and an adept fighter, even from an early age and as such a potential threat to the leaders of other tribes of the steppe. As a young man, despite extreme hardships, he repeatedly met perils and endured crises through force of character and willpower.

However, as his power and influence in Mongol society grew, Tie Muzhen was not averse to terminating such alliances if it was to his advantage. In 1189, after he was elected the new leader of the Kiyat, he embarked on a series of military campaigns to unify the peoples of the steppe. In fact, he even betrayed and killed blood brothers such as his childhood friend Jamukha, and the Ong Khan of the Kereyid tribes. In 1204, he defeated Naiman, his last serious opponent。

In 1206, after a series of skilful victories, Tie Muzhen was acknowledged by the Mongol nobility as their supreme leader at a Khuriltai, a traditional meeting of tribal leaders to decide upon the future military and state matters. He was given the title of "Genghis Khan", which means "Oceanic Ruler", "Fierce Ruler", or "Khan of all Khans". Thus, a powerful unified Mongolian State was established.

Genghis Khan's campaigns and those of his descendants led to the creation of an immense empire that stretched from Hungary to Korea.

Genghis Khan was a supremely capable military leader and administrator. At the beginning, he divided all the Mongols into 95 Qian Hu, each of which was a subordinate to Genghis Khan's empire, thus he stabilized his regime through direct control of each Qian Hu. He was a careful planner who enforced the strictest discipline on all subordinates. Typically, he would send envoys to an opponent demanding their submission. If they acquiesced, he usually allowed their rulers to remain in power, so long as they paid taxes, furnished labor, and provided military service. If an opponent remained defiant, he attacked.

In 1205, 1207 and 1209, Genghis Khan attacked the Western Xia on the west three times, the Western Xia offered submission. In 1211, Genghis Khan moved south against the Jin and in 1215 he successfully besieged the Jin capital in the area of today's Peking. In 1218, he defeated the Liao Kingdom. In 1219, he moved west with around 200,000 troops to confront the Khwarazmian shah of Central Asia. Over the next several years, he besieged and took the cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, Herat, Nishapur, and Merv. He spent several years in Central Asia and enjoyed great military success; with his generals mounting successful raids and expeditions as far west as the Russian city of Novgorod. In 1224, upon hearing news that the Tanguts had rebelled, he returned east to Karakorum, his capital city in Mongolia. In the year of 1226, Genghis Khan crusaded for the Western Xia which was annihilated in 1227. Genghis Khan died in August, 1227, perhaps from a wound or a fever contracted during the suppression of the Tangut rebellion.

The unification of Mongolian tribes and the conquering of Jin and Western Xia by Genghis Khan laid the foundation for another peak of prosperity in China's history -- the united Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368).

Genghis Khan left a legacy of more than just military might and skill. He supported artists and craftsmen, and promoted literacy among the Mongol people, who before his reign did not even possess an alphabet. Consequently, the alphabet of the neighboring Uygur people was adapted to the Mongol language. He also promoted a policy of religious toleration. All individuals and religions were equal under Mongol law. Having conquered such a vast domain, Genghis Khan became an enthusiastic promoter of trade. He and his successors encouraged and facilitated greater volumes of traffic throughout Asia. Steps were taken to provide effective policing in order to ensure the safety of travelers and the security of overland routes. Thus, for the first time, numerous European envoys, merchants, and craftsmen could travel in relative safety throughout Central Asia.

Though he was a conqueror whose exploits led to great destruction in terms of life and property, Genghis Khan did ultimately pave the way for an era of relative peace and security and increased cross-cultural contact.

Emperor Kublai Khan 中国皇帝 忽必烈

Kublai Khan, named Hu Bilie, was the founder of China's Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368). Born in 1215, he was the second son of Toluia and Sorghaghtani Beki and the grandson of the great Mongol conqueror, Genghis Khan. Kublai's mother raised him and his three brothers after their father's death. He began to play a major role in the consolidation of Mongol power in 1251, when his brother, the emperor Mongke, resolved to complete the conquest of China. He therefore vested Kublai with responsibility for keeping order in conquered territory. After Mongke's death in 1259, Kublai had himself proclaimed khan. However, Kublai's younger brother, Arigh Boki, with the help of support of several Mongols, challenged the throne. Kublai won over Boki when he cut off supplies to the southern empire. Kublai was claimed "Great Khan" in 1260.

In March, 1271, Kublai established the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) and proclaimed himself the emperor, later called Yuan Shizu. Afterwards, he strengthened his reign in the northern area and defeated the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1129). During the 20 years he completed the unification of China. He made his capital in what is now Beijing. For the first time in China's history, all of China was under the rule of foreign power.

Kublai Khan's main achievements include:

1. He re-unified China and was the first emperor who laid the foundation of today's territory of China.

2. In terms of political reform, he gave first priority to appointing people on their merits and seeking advice from able and worthy men. Besides, to strengthen the centralization, he established the system of provincial administrative division, named Xing Sheng, for the first time, which is still used today, although bearing great difference.

3. In terms of economic development, he stressed agricultural development, established paper currency, reorganized and improved roads, and expanded waterways. Kublai was the first to put in a countrywide paper currency system.

4. He encouraged modernization and trade with western nations, welcoming western traders like Marco Polo. Merchants had a high status during the Yuan period. In 1275, Marco Polp, a Venetian explorer, visited Shangdu and a relationship of trust was formed between the two. Marco Polo even served the Yuan court for 20 years during his stay in China.

5. He also encouraged the development of arts and literature.
But Kublai adopted a discriminatory policy towards the people by setting up a class system, which enraged those being discriminated, especially the Hans. In the system, the Mongols were the highest of the four classes; then came the miscellaneous aliens consisting of West-Asian Muslims; then the Han Chinese or the Chinese who lived in Northern China; and last were the Song Chinese or those Chinese who lived in the south. The Mongols considered the Song Chinese the least trustworthy.

Kublai Khan's reign gradually came to decline. Besides discriminatory policy which worsened social conflicts, his failures were mainly a series of costly wars, including two disastrous attempts to invade Japan. To pay for these highly expensive defeats, Kublai over taxed his subjects. This caused widespread inflation. These wars and other economic problems caused Kublai to become very intolerant.

Kublai Khan died on February 18, 1294, at the age of 79. In the 14th century the ineptitude of his successors provoked rebellions that eventually destroyed the Mongol dynasty.

Emperor Ming Taizu 中国皇帝 明太祖 朱元璋

Ming Taizu, named Zhu Yuanzhang, was the first emperor of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the longest dynasty in China's history. Zhu Yuanzhang was one of the first peasants who started a Chinese dynasty.

Zhu Yuanzhang was born into a poor family in 1328. When he was young, both his parents died. Zhu Yuanzhang used to be a peasant, a beggar and a Buddhist monk but was able to get followers to fight the Mongols. In 1352, he joined the Red Kerchief Army against the declining Yuan (Mongols) Dynasty (1271-1368) and soon became a peasant revolt leader. He began by conquering Southern China and pushing the Mongols North.

In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming Dynasty and set up his capital in the city of Nanjing in Southern China. Over half a year, he solved all obstacles and finally reunited China. He named his dynasty the Ming, meaning "brilliant". After becoming the emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang changed his name to Hong-Wu. "Hong" means huge and "Wu" means force.

After becoming the emperor of Ming, he abolished the post of prime minister, and worked out the Great Ming's laws which helped to strengthen centralization. He again adopted the government system that was supported by a large class of Confucian literati selected through civil service examinations.

Zhu Yuanzhang founded one of the longest dynasties in China history, but the peasant-born emperor did so by killing thousands of followers, old friends and adversaries. He was very careful to develop and maintain his power. For example, when he heard that his Prime Minister was plotting against him,Zhu Yuanzhang became scared that he was going to lose the Mandate of Heaven, so he killed the Prime Minister and about 40,000 of his followers.

He rebuilt the Chinese economy in many ways. He built rice terraces, introduced crop rotation, and planted over a billion trees. He created a hereditary military caste of soldiers who sustained themselves by farming.

Unlike all the other emperors, Zhu Yuanzhang worked very hard. Zhu Yuanzhang was a good emperor who carried out positive economic policies, created foundations for the prosperity in the early Ming Dynasty. But China under Ming's rule developed an autocratic government. Zhu Yuanzhang's cruelty also got adopted by his descendents.

Zhu Yuanzhang died in 1398 at the age of 71.

Emperor Ming Chengzu

Ming Chengzu, born in 1360 and named Zhu Di, is the 4th son of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first emperor of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). In 1398, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang died and his grandson Zhu Rongwen succeeded the throne. Zhu Rongwen, or Jian Wendi, accepted the suggestions of ministers to remove the rank of nobility from the kings of some kingdoms, in an attempt to strengthen the central power.

This act of course angered some of the kings, so King Zhu Di from the north, in 1399, started a civil war at Jing Nan in the name of "cleaning the central government". This civil war lasted 4 years and ended in 1402. The Jing Nan army led by Zhu Di captured the capital, Nanjing. But when the army arrived, the emperor was nowhere to be found, however, the lives of many of the emperor's ministers were not spared.

After removing all obstacles, Zhu Di proclaimed himself Ming Cheng Zu and changed the name of his reign to Yong Le. During his ruling period, national power was on an upscale and economy developed.

To defend the borders from constant attacks by the northern ethnic minorities, from 1410 to 1424, Zhu Di himself went on five punitive expeditions, defeating the invading Mongols. In the 19th reign (1421) of Yong Le, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, to further strengthen the northern borders.

Ming Chengzu paid great attention to agricultural development and irrigation constructions. He wanted to enlarge overseas influence, so he appointed Zheng He as the envoy to navigate the West Sea. At that time "The West Sea", known to the Chinese, was the water near the bank of Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean. He dispatched Zheng He to sail to "The West Sea" 7 times. Besides, he was also the one who ordered the compilation of the famous Encyclopedia of Yong Le.

Zhu Di died in 1424 at the age of 65.

Emperor Nurhachi

Nurhachi, the Manchu ruler, was the founder of the Later Jin Dynasty (1616-1636) and laid the foundation of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). After his death, Nurhachi was given the title of Qing Taizu when the dynasty was founded, meaning the first emperor of the Qing Dynasty.
He was born in a Manchu slave-owner family in today's Xinbin County in Liaoning Province in 1559 and died from diseases at the age of 68 in 1626. His father and grandfather were nobles of a Nuzhen tribe in northern China and served as frontier officials for the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). Due to his noble birth, Nurhachi from little age had excelled in martial art.

The ancestry of the Manchus can be traced back to Nuzhen tribe more than 2000 years ago, which was native to the Changbai Mountains and the drainage area of the Heilongjiang River in Northeast China. By the Ming Dynasty, the Nuzhen people were still chained by slavery and divided into several warring tribes, resulting in backward social production.

When he was 10 years old, Nurhachi began to live with his grandfather due to the death of his mother. Since then, he constantly traveled to Fu Shun in today's Shangdong Province to trade with the local people, who he soon made friends with. Gradually, he learned the Han language and developed a love for the Han culture.

In 1595 when he was 19 years old, the Ming court conferred on Nurhachi the title of "Dragon-Tiger General", after making him a garrison commander in 1582 and public procurator of Heilongjiang Province in 1589. Frequent trips to Beijing brought him full awareness of developments in the Han areas, which in turn exerted great influence on him.

Towards the end of the Ming Dynasty, Nurhachi organized his troops under the Banner System. In 1616, Nurhachi proclaimed himself "Sagacious Khan" and established a slave state Jin, known as the Late Jin Dynasty in history. In August 1617, after 30 years' effort, he finally united all the Nuzhen tribes and laid the foundation for the establishment of the Qing Dynasty.

Once the Nuzhens were united, Nurhachi initiated the Eight Banner System, under which all people were organized along military lines and would go into battle as militia in time of war. Under the strong influence of the Han people, the Manchu slave system soon underwent a speedy development towards feudalism.

During the war against the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), his troops took over the Liaohe River valley after their victory in the Saerhu War. Nurhachi moved his capital to Liaoyang in 1621, and then to Shenyang in 1625. In 1626 he was defeated by the Ming army and died of battle wounds on September 30 in the same year. After his death, Nurhachi was buried in the Fu Mausoleum in Shen Yang.

In 1635, Huang Taiji, the eighth son of Nurhachi, chose the name of Manchu to replace Nuzhen for his people. In the following year, when he ascended the throne, he adopted Great Qing as the name of his dynasty. In 1644, the Qing troops marched south of Shanhaiguan or Shanhai Pass and unified the whole of China, initiating nearly 300 years of Manchu rule throughout the country.